Forestry and the Homestead

Controlling Invasive Species without Chemicals

2011-08-12T11:46:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense), bull thistle (Cirsium vulgare) and prickly lettuce (Lactuca serriola) serve a purpose. Adjacent to our land, they were some of the first opportunists that colonized the acres of disturbed soil, which were bared during the course of development. When the housing market crashed in 2008 the development stalled, then stopped and will soon be in foreclosure. In the meantime, these species have done what they do very well…spread.

Canada thistle can spread 12’ to 15’ per year, vegetatively, via horizontal stems; located 6” to 12” below the soil surface and which send up frequent vertical stems. They are also very effective seed producers; a single plant produces an average of 1,500 seeds. Bull thistle and prickly lettuce are even better at producing seed. Mature bull thistle can produce up to 4,000 seeds per plant and prickly lettuce may produce more than 46,000 seeds per plant. In another adjacent area that is grazed, diffuse knapweed (Centaurea diffusa) has become prevalent. A single diffuse knapweed plant can produce up to 18,000 seeds, which are dispersed, in part, after the plant dries out, breaks off, tumbles assisted by the wind dispersing seed as it rolls until it gets stuck against a fence or shrub where it drops more seed. If I was not so busy trying to keep these species in check, without using chemicals, I would marvel at their mechanisms for survival; producing large quantities of seed, thriving in disturbed soil or in over-grazed pasture, growing aggressive root systems that spread long distances and producing seed that is effectively transported by wind, water, birds, animals and humans.

Per RCW 17.10.140 it is the landowner’s responsibility to eradicate all Class A noxious weeds and to control and prevent the spread of designated Class B and Class C noxious weeds from their property. Diffuse knapweed is identified as a Class B weed and Canada thistle and bull thistle are identified as Class C noxious weeds on the Kittitas County Noxious Weed List. Canada thistle is given special attention given the importance of the export hay market in Kittitas County and the adverse affect of Canada thistle on it. Prickly lettuce is not classified as a noxious weed; we choose to control it because we would prefer to replace it with a native plant that does not have stiff bristles that get lodged in fingers like splinters.

Chickens around the perimeter of our property are our ultimate plan; acting like little soldiers keeping the weed seeds out. However, until we find the time and money to build enough fence to realize this vision we continue to use somewhat conventional control methods. We control each plant depending on its life cycle. Using tarps and recycled pool liner we cover the patches of Canada thistle. Since Canada thistle readily propagates from stem and root fragments plowing or other soil disturbance is ineffective and can increase thistle densities. Mowing Canada thistle is effective if repeated at 7-28 day intervals for up to 4 years; mowing Canada thistle once a year is not effective. To prevent production of viable seeds, stems must be mown before the flowers open; stems with flowers that have been open 8-10 days can develop viable seeds. The bull thistle is the easiest to control, it has a two year life cycle. Plants grow vegetatively their first year as rosettes and in the second year the stems elongate and flower. Digging out or pulling up the taproot and disposing of the seed heads, if they have already gone to flower, is an effective control method. Prickly lettuce is an annual, which, this year, I pulled and weedeated before the flowers opened. However, after doing research for this narrative, I realize the plants I weedeated may produce new stems and flowers. So next year, we may have a sheep do the work for us or emphasize pulling and maybe some tarping over weed eating. Diffuse knapweed is a biennial, annual or short lived perennial that reproduces by seed. This year I pulled the plants and if the taproot did not accompany the pulled plant, I dug it up. Rototilling or plowing are effective methods of controlling knapweed if you don’t mind disturbing the soil. However, mowing is not, plants are able to resprout and flower again in the same season and plants that are regularly mowed can persist as short lived perennials or flower below the level of the mower. Grazing is not an effective control method for diffuse knapweed because it is generally unpalatable to livestock, and the spines around the flower heads may injure the mouths and digestive tracts of grazing animals. Also, the ground disturbance created by grazing creates ideal habitat for knapweed to spread. As a precaution, anyone working with diffuse knapweed or other knapweed species should wear protective gloves and avoid getting knapweed sap into open cuts or abrasions. Workers should wash their hands and exposed skin with soap and water following contact with this plant.

A word about disposal, if you can remove the plants before they go to flower, they can be left on the ground to be desiccated by exposure. If they have gone to flower, there is a chance that even after being cut or pulled, they can go to seed. It depends on the species and how long the flower has been open. To be safe if a plant has gone to flower I treat it as if it has gone to seed. This year, I took the removed plant and/or seed head to the local compost facility, where they get their piles hot enough to kill weed seeds. Last year, I bagged the material in 30 gallon heavy duty black garbage bags and let it cook in the sun for a year.

The proverb, an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure, is worth repeating in bringing it back around to the disturbed soil that started this narrative. If you bare the soil, and don’t take care to restore cover, nature will and it probably won’t be with desirable species. Preventing soil disturbance, in the first place, is far more cost effective than eradicating the invasive plants that may occupy it. Finally, the Kittitas County Weed Board is an excellent resource for information about identifying and controlling noxious weeds. Following is their contact information along with other relevant resources.

Kittitas County Noxious Weed Control Board (509) 962-7007 http://www.co.kittitas.wa.us/noxiousweeds/laws.asp
http://www.co.kittitas.wa.us/noxiousweeds/Weed-list.pdf

Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board. http://www.nwcb.wa.gov/

Invasipedia houses information on invasive plants and especially how to best manage them. http://wiki.bugwood.org/Invasipedia
http://wiki.bugwood.org/Cirsium_arvense
http://wiki.bugwood.org/Centaurea_diffusa

King County Noxious Weeds Index to Specific Weed Pages for Identification, Photos, Control and Other Information
http://www.kingcounty.gov/environment/animalsAndPlants/noxious-weeds/weed-identification.aspx
http://your.kingcounty.gov/dnrp/library/water-and-land/weeds/BMPs/bull-thistle-control.pdf
http://your.kingcounty.gov/dnrp/library/water-and-land/weeds/BMPs/Diffuse-Knapweed-control.pdf

University of Washington Herbarium Image Collection: Plants of Washington
http://biology.burke.washington.edu/herbarium/imagecollection.php

Washington State University Extension
http://extension.wsu.edu/nrs/noxious/Pages/default.aspx
http://www.whitman.wsu.edu/documents/Weeds/PricklyLettuce2006.pdf.

A portion of this production was gleaned from the above listed resources.

I welcome responses as well as ideas for future Forestry and the Homestead narratives. You can also get an email version by contacting me at thembi@mcn.org.

Thembi Borras is a forester and aspiring permaculturalist living and working in Kittitas County, WA USA.

Energy Conservation, Solar and Wind in Kittitas County

2010-05-17T22:34:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

Introduction
There are so many reasons to reduce your energy consumption and then meet that consumption with renewable energy. Since we purchased our home in 2007, we added insulation, replaced windows, sealed leaks and installed a solar water heating system. We took these steps to insulate ourselves from rising energy costs and because it made economic sense; the solar water heating system we installed will pay for itself within 11 years, based on the energy saved, and is expected to last 30 years. Whatever your reasons, the following suggestions for prioritizing will help you decide where to begin.

The first and best way to reduce the energy footprint of your home is to design it to work with the environment instead of against it. If your house already exists, energy conservation yields the largest reduction of energy in exchange for your time and money. The next biggest bang for your buck comes from directly heating water with the sun. Ironically, the most excitingly appealing improvement, a system that generates electricity from the wind or sun, is the last thing to consider, based on return on investment.

In Kittitas County, people have done all of these things and, for the most part, what they have done is working. They have built passive solar homes, they have built energy efficient homes, they have retrofitted homes to be more energy efficient, they have installed solar water heating systems and they have installed systems that produce electricity from the sun and wind. The purpose of this article is to share information and resources associated with these options based on what they have learned.

Passive Solar Design
Based on the national average, heating and cooling constitute 44% of home energy use. This amount can be reduced by half or more (even in cold climates), with little or no increase in construction costs by building a well insulated, well designed passive solar home. The goal of passive solar design is to manipulate components of the home to use the environment to heat and cool your home, without motors. The latitude of Ellensburg is 47 degrees N. At this latitude, the winter sun rises in the southeast, is low in the south sky at midday, and sets in the southwest. The summer sun rises in the northeast, is high in the south sky at midday, and sets in the northwest. This means the winter sun can be utilized and the summer sun excluded. The following are the practices that constitute passive solar design.
1. Orient the south face of the home to within 15 degrees of true south and choose a building site with no obstructions to the low angle of the winter sun.
2. Maximize exposure to the south by running the long, narrow axis of the house east west.
3. Install enough south facing glazing (e.g. windows and glass doors), but not too much, and balance it with thermal mass. The south glazing should constitute between 7% and 12% of the floor area (e.g. the square footage of south glazing should be between 70 sq. ft. and 120 sq. ft. for a floor area of 1,000 sq. ft.). Glazing in east and north facing walls should not exceed 4% and west facing glazing should not exceed 2% of the total square footage. Note: Windows with a low solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) are readily available, but look for windows with a high SHGC (at least 0.52) for the south wall.
4.Install thermal mass, a 4 inch thick slab or 8 inch free standing wall, matte-textured and dark in color is ideal. A rule is to allow 6 sq. ft. of slab floor available to the sun for each square foot of south glazing beyond 7% (e.g. A 1,500 sq. ft. house with the maximum recommended 12% south facing glazing of 180 sq. ft. would require 450 sq. ft. of slab floor available to the sun).
5. Properly size overhangs (e.g. roof eves and awnings) to fully shade south facing windows in the summer and fully expose south facing windows in the winter. Sustainable by Design provides a Window Overhang Design tool at http://www.susdesign.com/tools.php making sizing overhangs easy.
6. Insulate beyond code requirements and eliminate air leakage.
7. Ventilate because a well insulated house in which air leakage has been eliminated, also minimizes air exchange between the inside and outside, which may result in poor indoor air quality. Conventional vapor barriers, venting and exhausting may not be enough. In the summer, in the evenings, ventilation can be achieved by opening windows to allow for cross ventilation, but when it is cold, this is a poor option because you lose precious heat. An energy recovery ventilator (ERV) or heat recovery ventilator (HRV) are options, they are devices that keep heat in the house while moving stale air out of the house.
Passive Solar Home, East of Kittitas
One local couple that now lives in their recently completed well insulated, passive solar house, located east of Kittitas, is very satisfied with its performance. Last summer, they reported an interior temperature of 70 degrees F, when the exterior temperature was 95 degrees F. Tools they found useful were Google SketchUp that they used to create a 3D model of their home, which they added to Google Earth. Using these tools they were able to track the movement of the winter sun and the summer sun through the windows of their 3D model home.

For more information on passive solar design, fundamental resources include The Solar House: Passive Heating and Cooling by Dan Chiras and The Sun-Inspired House: House Designs Warmed and Brightened by the Sun by Debra Rucker Coleman.

Energy Conservation
If your house already exists, energy conservation is the first thing to consider. One element of energy conservation is energy efficiency improvements, including reducing air leakage, adding insulation, and upgrading windows. However, before beginning, hire a professional to conduct an energy audit or learn how to do it yourself. An energy audit will help you prioritize energy efficiency improvements. According to the advertising of one local energy auditor, the cost to audit most homes is $135.00 per thousand square feet. For low income households, free energy auditing services are available through the HopeSource weatherization program. We hired an energy auditor after buying our home when we began to receive $400 electricity bills as winter approached. He did a field visit and created a report for us, in which he recommended a number of energy saving actions including sealing the opening below the tub (which we didn’t even know existed), sealing around the pipes and wires, adding a vapor barrier and adding insulation. He addressed my concern regarding adequate ventilation, as air leakage is reduced, by stating, “we can reduce air leakage of many old houses by as much as ½ and still have good combustion safety and ventilation, but that we should continue to use good spot ventilation to clear our kitchen and shower steam and minimize indoor toxins.”

Once you know where to begin, the choices can seem overwhelming. The Efficient Windows Collaborative (http://www.efficientwindows.org/) offers a free window selection tool to compare the U-values, SHGC, and energy costs for windows from various manufacturers. There are two cities in Washington for which calculations have been made, I suggest choosing Spokane. Regarding insulation, the Oak Ridge National Laboratory offers a free Whole Wall R-value Calculator (http://www.ornl.gov/sci/roofs+walls/AWT/InteractiveCalculators/rvalueinfo.htm) for direct comparisons of different wall technologies.

Other energy saving actions, our energy auditor recommended, included replacing standard bulbs with compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs, he said, are number one in the effort to control global warming) and purchasing energy efficient appliances when they need to be replaced. Based on the national average, lighting, cooking, and other appliances (including the refrigerator) constitute 42% of home energy use. Energy Federation Incorporated (http://www.efi.org/) is one leading residential distributor of energy efficiency related products that provides information about these products and sells them through their on-line store. The ENERGY STAR program (http://www.energystar.gov/) identifies products that have earned the ENERGY STAR label by meeting energy efficiency requirements. And soon TopTen USA (http://www.toptenusa.org/default.htm) will help users find and purchase the most energy efficient products in the U.S. marketplace.

The other equally important element to conserve energy is to be thrifty, like clipping coupons where you save money with a little bit of effort, by doing things around the house a little bit differently, you save energy. Things you can do to save energy include using the clothesline instead of the dryer, taking short showers, turning the thermostat down, turning off lights not needed, eliminating phantom loads and closing and opening windows and covering them to employ the sun and wind for heating and cooling.

Solar Water Heating
After energy conservation the next lowest hanging fruit is installing a solar water heating system. Based on the national average, water heating constitutes 14% of home energy use. Installing a properly sized solar water heating system can save 60% to 90% of the energy used to heat hot water per year.

The best resource to learn about solar water heating, especially if you plan to install your own system, is the book entitled Solar Hot Water Systems Lessons Learned 1977 to Today by Tom Lane. According to him, “only two types of active systems can survive in climates that experience freezes every year …: closed-loop drainback systems and closed-loop anti-freeze systems with well thought out heat exchange… systems...” More specifically, his favorite system is a double-pumped drainback system with a heat exchanger in the drainback reservoir. Another resource, that is free, is the Department of Energy’s 2003 Consumer’s Guide entitled, “Heat Your Water with the Sun” (http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy04osti/34279.pdf).

Systems that have been installed locally include a double-pumped drainback system coupled with flat plate collectors, pressurized glycol system coupled with flat plate collectors and pressurized glycol system coupled with evacuated tubes. Their owners are pleased with their performance, each of these systems are designed in such a way that they are not adversely affected by our cold winters.

A comparison of solar water heating systems is provided in Home Power’s 2008 Solar Water Heating Systems Buyer's Guide (http://homepower.com/view/?file=HP125_pg92_Marken). If you want to compare thermal collectors, the performance of different flat plate collectors and evacuated tubes is listed in Home Power’s 2008 Solar Thermal Collector Guide (http://homepower.com/view/?file=HP123_pg66_Marken).
Flat Plate Collectors; Part of a Double-Pumped Drainback Solar Water Heating System
I discuss our 2008 investigation into solar water heating in detail in the 04-22-08 entry of this blog.

Generating Electricity from the Sun and Wind
Once you have shrunk the energy consumption of your home as much as possible, you can consider installing a system that generates electricity from the sun and/or wind.
Wind and Solar Combined to Produce Electricity
Topics including evaluating a site for solar PV potential, photovoltaic system types, system components, putting the system together, system design considerations and cost considerations are covered in the free Washington State University Extension Energy Program publication entitled “Solar Electric System Design, Operation and Installation An Overview for Builders in the U.S. Pacific Northwest” recently published in October 2009 (http://www.energy.wsu.edu/Documents/SolarPVforBuildersOct2009.pdf).

Topics including practicality of wind energy, wind turbine sizing, basic parts of a small wind electric system, cost of wind systems, installation and maintenance support, energy production of wind systems, evaluating a site for wind and connecting a wind system to the grid are covered in the free Department of Energy publication entitled “Shortcut to Small Wind Electric Systems-Washington Consumers Guide” published in August 2007 (http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy07osti/41391.pdf).

Another valuable resource are Home Power magazines regularly published Buyer’s Guides on different components including the 2009 PV Module Buyer's Guide (http://homepower.com/view/?file=HP128_pg78_Sanchez), 2009 Grid-Tied Inverter Buyer’s Guide (http://homepower.com/article/?file=HP133_pg58_Mayfield) and 2007 Wind Turbine Buyer’s Guide (http://homepower.com/view/?file=HP119_pg34_Sagrillo).

Home systems that have been installed locally include independent and grid-tied photovoltaic and grid-tied wind. The types of wind turbines include the Skystream 3.7 on 33 ft. and 45 ft. monopoles, Bergey Excel-R (7.5 kW) and Bergey Excel-S, (10 kW) on a 100 ft. free standing tower.
Bergey Excel-S, (10 kW) on a 100 ft. Free Standing Tower Photo taken by Eric Irwin

The latter wind system is large enough that it produces the power required to run the home and more. The owners are compensated by the State of Washington for the excess electricity they produce at a rate of $0.12/kWhr up to $2,000/year.

One important thing to keep in mind with wind systems is investments in increased tower height can yield very high rates of return in power production. Ground drag is a significant adverse factor affecting production when located less than 66 feet from the ground.

Incentives
Incentive programs can substantially reduce installed costs. To view current state and federal incentives the Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency (http://www.dsireusa.org/) is the best resource. There are four types of incentives for residential renewable energy in Kittitas County.
1. Residential Renewable Energy federal personal tax credit for 30% of qualified expenditures for eligible technologies including solar water heat, photovoltaics and wind. It is set to expire on 12/31/2016.
2. 100% exemption from Washington State sales tax for eligible technologies including solar water heat, photovoltaics and wind. It is set to expire on 06/30/13, but may have already expired for solar hot water.
3. Production incentive between $0.12/kWh and $1.08/kWh (depending on project type, technology type and where equipment was manufactured) up to $5,000/year for eligible technologies including photovoltaics and wind. It is set to expire on 6/30/2020. Northwest Solar Center (http://www.northwestsolarcenter.org) lists eligible technologies manufactured in Washington.
4. Net metering; utilities are required to allow homeowners to hook eligible technologies including solar and wind to the grid. If you have questions about Washington State's Net Metering Law, the Washington State University Extension Energy Program created a Q & A sheet about it (http://www.energy.wsu.edu/documents/renewables/netmeteringlaw.pdf).

Permits
Contact the appropriate permitting entity to determine if a permit is required for you project.

Resources
For more information on passive solar design, fundamental resources include The Solar House: Passive Heating and Cooling by Dan Chiras and The Sun-Inspired House: House Designs Warmed and Brightened by the Sun by Debra Rucker Coleman.

Sustainable by Design provides a free Window Overhang Design tool at http://www.susdesign.com/tools.php

Google SketchUp is available to download for free at http://sketchup.google.com/download/index2.html

Energy-10 computer software is geared toward the professional. It can identify the best combination of energy-efficient strategies, including daylighting, passive solar heating, and high-efficiency mechanical systems. It can be purchased form the Sustainable Buildings Industry Council at http://www.sbicouncil.org/storeindex.cfm

Publications such as Home Power and Solar Today are excellent resources that cover all of the topics discussed in this article in greater detail. Attention to K-12 School Libraries, Redwood Alliance is offering free subscriptions to Home Power for K-12 school libraries. To complete the short online application go to http://redwoodalliance.org. To access the Home Power articles referenced in this article you must become a subscriber.

HopeSource Weatherization Service http://www.hopesource.us/html/weatherization.html

Efficient Windows Collaborative offers a free window selection tool to compare the U-values, SHGC, and energy costs for windows from various manufacturers http://www.efficientwindows.org/

Energy Federation Incorporated is a leading residential distributor of energy efficiency-related products that provides information about these products and sells them through their on-line store. http://www.efi.org/

The ENERGY STAR program identifies products, separated into categories, that have earned the ENERGY STAR label by meeting the energy efficiency requirements set forth in ENERGY STAR product specifications. http://www.energystar.gov/

TopTen USA will soon help users find and purchase the most energy efficient products in the U.S. marketplace. http://www.toptenusa.org/default.htm

The best resource to learn about solar water heating, especially if you plan to install your own system, is the book entitled Solar Hot Water Systems Lessons Learned 1977 to Today by Tom Lane.

Heat Your Water with the Sun, a free 2003 Department of Energy Consumer’s Guide http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy04osti/34279.pdf

2008 Solar Water Heating Systems Buyer's Guide http://homepower.com/view/?file=HP125_pg92_Marken

2008 Solar Thermal Collector Buyer's Guide http://homepower.com/view/?file=HP123_pg66_Marken

I discuss our path to solar water heating in greater detail in the 04-22-08 entry on this blog.

Solar Electric System Design, Operation and Installation An Overview for Builders in the U.S. Pacific Northwest, a free Washington State University Extension Energy Program publication recently published in October 2009 http://www.energy.wsu.edu/documents/renewables/SolarPVforBuildersOct2009.pdf

Shortcut to Small Wind Electric Systems-Washington Consumers Guide, a free Department of Energy publication published in August 2007 http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy07osti/41391.pdf

Home Power Magazine 2009 PV Module Buyer's Guide http://homepower.com/view/?file=HP128_pg78_Sanchez

Home Power Magazine 2009 Grid-Tied Inverter Buyer’s Guide http://homepower.com/article/?file=HP133_pg58_Mayfield

Home Power Magazine 2007 Wind Turbine Buyer’s Guide (http://homepower.com/view/?file=HP119_pg34_Sagrillo)

Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency http://www.dsireusa.org/

Q & A About Washington State's Net Metering Law produced by the Washington State University Extension Energy Program http://www.energy.wsu.edu/documents/renewables/netmeteringlaw.pdf

Northwest Solar Center
http://www.northwestsolarcenter.org

Identifying, Testing, Enriching And Preparing Soil For Producing Food

2010-03-15T15:59:00.000-07:00

Soil Function
The purpose of this entry is to briefly review soil function, introduce resources that identify soil, cover soil testing, interpret soil test results, share typical data for soils in Kittitas County, how to enrich them and prepare them for growing food and finally, soil conservation.

Soil provides nutrients, water and physical support for plants, air for plant roots and a medium for microorganisms. An idealized soil may contain 45% soil mineral particles, 5% organic matter, 25% air and 25% water. Individual particles of sand, silt and clay tend to cluster and bind together forming aggregates called peds. Aggregation is a function of biological activity (e.g. earthworm burrowing), root growth and organic matter, which acts as a natural glue that stabilizes and strengthens peds. The spaces between peds are called pores and depending on their size are either macro or micro. Macropores influence aeration and permeability, the rate at which water moves through the soil. Micropores influence available water capacity. Porosity is a function of texture, structure, compaction and organic matter. Soil that has a balance of macropores and micropores provides adequate permeability and water holding capacity for good plant growth.

Soils meter nutrients to plants. These nutrients come from weathering and organic matter decomposition. Plants can only take up nutrients dissolved in soil water. The surface of clay particles and organic matter are negatively charged and hold positively charged nutrients such as ammonium, potassium, calcium and magnesium in an available reserve to be released into soil solution to replace nutrients taken up by plant roots. Soil chemical properties are a function of soil origin, soil texture, drainage, soil weathering and organic matter.

There are a multitude of organisms that thrive in soil. Mycorrhizae, rhizobia bacteria and earthworms are key players in the complex soil food web. Mycorrhizae are fungus that infect plant roots and increases the plants ability to take up nutrients. Rhizobia bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into plant available forms. Earthworms mix large volumes of soil and create macropore channels. In every handful of healthy soil there are 6 billion soil organisms, as many as there are people on the planet.

Soil Identification
The Web Soil Survey (http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/) is an internet based free tool that can be used to broadly identify a soil and its characteristics. Keep in mind, if the area of interest is close to a boundary then it is wise to field check the area of interest by digging a profile or using a probe to examine the soil profile.

Useful information that can be gleaned from this resource includes:

Depth to restrictive feature, a hardpan is an example of a restrictive features, it restricts rooting depth and permeability.

Drainage class refers to the frequency and duration of wet periods; however alterations of the water regime by human activities, either through drainage or irrigation, are not generally considered. There are seven recognized drainage classes; they are excessively drained, somewhat excessively drained, well drained, moderately well drained, somewhat poorly drained, poorly drained, and very poorly drained.

Depth to water table is the depth to the saturated zone, but again may be different as a result of irrigation and drainage projects. Evidence of this zone includes gray soil with mottles.

Available water capacity refers to the quantity of water that the soil is capable of storing for use by plants. The capacity for water storage is given in inches of water per inches of soil. Available water capacity is a function of the organic matter content, soil porosity, soil texture, bulk density, and soil structure, with corrections for salinity and rock fragments.

Finally, the typical profile is a description, primarily textural, of each typical soil layer.

With a soil sample from the area of interest, the soil textural triangle is a useful tool to verify soil texture. Sand is gritty, silt is smooth and clay can be formed into a long strong ribbon before breaking. For example, a loam falls out last, neither grittiness nor smoothness predominates. Another way of qualitatively assessing soil texture is to put soil samples of clay loam, silt loam, and sandy loam in separate clear jars with water, shaking them and comparing the amounts of sand silt and clay that drop out. The sand will settle out in a minute or two, silt in about an hour and clay several hours to a day.

Clay soils hold a lot of water, but are hard to dig, dry slowly in the spring and are prone to compaction. Sandy soils can be planted into earlier in the spring, but need more frequent watering. Coarse fragments are not harmful, but can be a nuisance and do not contribute to the productivity of a soil.

Soil Testing
The soil survey can only take you so far. Soil testing can take you a step closer to knowing your soil and will account for past management. There are four local labs that do soil fertility testing. Their contact information is listed in the resources section. Before collecting a sample contact the lab to get instructions. Soiltest farm consultants offers basic lawn and garden sampling techniques at http://www.soiltestlab.com/forms/GardenReqForm.pdf

Interpreting Soil Test Results
Soiltest farm consultants offers a general soil test interpretation guide at http://www.soiltestlab.com/forms/soil-handout.pdf

General Kittitas County Soil Information
The soils in the Kittitas Valley are very diverse. At the base of the hills on the east side of the Kittitas Valley, the pH can be high at 8.0 or higher, the soluble salts can be high at 3 to 5 m.mho/cm, the organic matter can be modest at 1 to 2%, the available phosphorus can be modest at 8 ppm (parts per million), the available potassium can be modest at 80 ppm and nitrate, sulfate and boron can be all over the place. In the wet part of the Kittitas Valley, near the Yakima River, the pH can be low at 6.0, the soluble salts are usually not an issue at 1 m.mho/cm (although areas that are not well drained may be high in soluble salts), the organic matter can be high at 5 to 6%, the available phosphorus can be moderate at 10 to 20 ppm and the available potassium, nitrate, sulfate and boron can be all over the place.

Enriching Soil
The next step is to determine what to add to your garden soil and how much. This discussion is not comprehensive, it will cover improving soil fertility with regard to the primary nutrients, increasing soil organic matter and finally decreasing soil pH and soluble salts.

Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are the primary nutrients. Nitrogen is a key element in proteins, is a food source for soil organisms, and causes green growth. Phosphorus gives plants energy and is necessary for the growth of flowers and seeds. Potassium aids in protein synthesis and in the translocation of carbohydrates to build strong stems. Soil test results will likely include an interpretation guide, which will convey whether the soil tested has high, medium or low nutrient levels.

The following table displays general nitrogen, phosphate and potash recommendations for gardens with low, medium and high nutrient levels from three sources. The three sources are a 1982 Fertilizer Guide entitled “Home Vegetable Garden for Irrigated Central Washington”, a 2005 Fertilizer Recommendations Guide published by South Dakota State University and the 2006 edition of How to Grow More Vegetables by John Jeavons. In the absence of a soil test, use the recommendations for gardens with medium nutrient levels. I elected to use the numbers in the 1982 Fertilizer Guide for further calculation. Since most of us will not be working at the per acre level, I converted the numbers from lbs/acre to lbs/100 sq ft by dividing by 43,560, the number of square feet in an acre and multiplying the result by 100.

Table 1. N, P and K Recommendations for Gardens with Low, Medium and High Nutrient Levels
The next step is to determine how much fertilizer to add based on its analysis. These figures, 0.2 lbs of N per 100 sq ft, 0.4 lbs of phosphate per 100 sq ft and 0.2 lbs of potash per 100 sq ft can now be entered into the Organic Fertilizer Calculator. The Organic Fertilizer Calculator can be downloaded at http://smallfarms.oregonstate.edu/organic-fertilizer-calculator/register at no cost, but you have to register. A user guide accompanies the calculator.

Things to know are that values can be entered into yellow cells (all other cells are locked), any units can be used without changing the formulas as long as units are kept consistent and PAN is the acronym for plant available nitrogen. One of the first things to do is select the “Nutrient provided” tab and enter the amounts needed in the “Total needed” row. Be sure to enter the nitrogen requirement under “Estimated PAN after full season” (column F) rather than under “Total N applied” (column C). Now as different amounts and combinations of fertilizers are entered above, the “Total needed” can be compared to the “Total applied”. If 10 lbs of NutriRich is entered, a slow release pelletized supplemented chicken manure, we learn that the N needed is met; we are short on the phosphate needed and a little over on the potash. It does not have to be perfect, just close. If the fertilizer is not listed and the analysis is known, go to the “Fertilizer analysis” tab and enter the analysis in an open row. The fertilizer manufacturer may need to be contacted to ascertain the % dry matter, a spreadsheet requirement to get “PAN after full season”.

To illustrate the meaning of a fertilizer analysis, NutriRich, which has an analysis of 4-3-3, contains 4% nitrogen, 3% phosphorus expressed as units of phosphate and 4% potassium expressed as units of potash and expressed as percentages of total fertilizer weight. This calculator can also be used to compare costs.

All of the fertilizers listed in the Organic Fertilizer Calculator are considered organic. There is a difference between organic fertilizers and processed fertilizers (aka inorganic fertilizers or synthetic fertilizers). Organic fertilizers require little or no processing, use recycled materials that would otherwise be discarded as waste, have a low analysis or often the analysis is unknown. They are usually slow release (e.g. many months) and are usually a source of organic matter. Processed fertilizers require industrial processing, can create waste, have a high analysis, are usually fast release (e.g. days or weeks), have a known analysis and have no organic matter. Further, the raw material for processed nitrogen is nitrogen gas from the atmosphere and requires a substantial amount of fossil fuels to manufacture. Processed phosphorus fertilizers come from phosphate rock treated with acid. The most common raw material for potassium fertilizers is sylvinite, a deep salt deposit, treated to remove the sodium salts to make it suitable for use as a fertilizer.

There are several points to consider when using fertilizer. First, the best time to apply fertilizer is so the nutrients in the fertilizer are available when the plants need the nutrients. For example, NutriRich, a slow release fertilizer, is spread after harvest, in September, so the nutrients will be available to the crops planted the following spring. Second, it is easy to apply too much processed fertilizer, which can harm crops and the environment. Too much manure can also be applied. Excessive amounts of fertilizer act as salt. Finally, as a general rule, in the absence of a soil test, in eastern Washington, usually only nitrogen is needed.

For the most part, all of the fertilizers listed in the Organic Fertilizer Calculator, will have to be imported. Importing fertilizers is not sustainable and should be a temporary fix to raise the soil fertility to a satisfactory level in a short period of time. Once that has been accomplished, the only sustainable way to maintain the fertility of your soil is by growing the crops that will replenish it. I hadn’t really wrapped my mind around this concept until recently, now I realize crop rotation, managing crop residues and composting are essential. Crop residues and compost are so essential, in part because they, with manure, are “the” sources of organic matter.

“If you follow practices that build and maintain good levels of soil organic matter, you will find it easier to grow healthy and high-yielding crops. Plants can withstand droughty conditions better and won’t be as bothered by insects and diseases…Soil organic matter is that important….A study of soils in Michigan demonstrated potential crop-yield increases of about 12% for every 1% organic matter.”
-Better Soils for Better Crops

Although organic matter is only a small component of the soil, the importance of organic matter cannot be overstated. Organic matter has three parts, living organisms, fresh residues and well decomposed residues. As organic matter is decomposed, nutrients are converted into forms that plants can use. The soils ability to retain these nutrients also increases with organic matter decomposition. The well decomposed residue is called humus. Humus is very stable, complex and serves special functions. It functions to hold on to some essential nutrients, storing them for slow release to plants. It can surround certain potentially harmful chemicals and prevent them from causing damage to plants. It also improves water retention by enhancing aggregation and by holding onto and releasing water. The best method to improve soil structure is to add organic matter, but how much?

It is stated in Better Soils for Better Crops, “There are few accepted guidelines for adequate organic matter content in particular agricultural soils”. An idealized soil may contain 5% organic matter. However, in a sandy soil 2% is very good and may be difficult to reach. In the Kittitas Valley, the organic matter can be modest at 1 to 2% on the east side and high at 5 to 6% by the Yakima River. The organic matter in soils farmed by one local farmer, who grows cover crops each winter and incorporates them into the soil the following spring, has been measured and ranges between 6% and 18%. Recommended application rates of compost and manure, reported by various sources, are listed in the following table. Keep in mind, manures may contain excess salt and vary widely in nutrient content and nutrient availability, depending on the type of animal that produced the manure and the age and handling of the manure; more is not always better.

Table 2. Recommended Application Rates of Compost and Manure
The C:N ratio is probably the greatest single factor determining the rate of decomposition and mineralization of organic matter. If we are looking for the organic matter to provide short term nutrient availability, then we have to select organic matter that has a low C:N ratio or realize that if adding organic matter that has a high C:N ratio then, nitrogen immobilization may occur unless nitrogen is supplemented. The carbon to nitrogen ratio, reported by various sources, of some organic matters is listed in the following table.

Table 3 C:N Ratio of Some Organic Matters
According to the Organic Fertilizer Calculator User Guide, microorganisms that consume organic matter have a C:N ratio that ranges from about 10:1 to 15:1. If the C:N ratio in the organic material is below about 15:1, the material provides more nitrogen than the microorganisms need to develop and reproduce, so they excrete mineral forms of nitrogen that are easily taken up by plants. If the C:N ratio is higher than about 20:1, the microorganisms supplement the protein in their food source with mineral nitrogen in the soil solution, thus immobilizing the nitrogen that plants otherwise would use. However, we may be safe using a higher threshold. According to, the Better Soils for Better Crops publication, residues with a C:N ratio in the mid 20s to low 30s, will not have much effect on short-term nitrogen immobilization or release. What can be inferred is that addition of organic matter with a low C:N ratio must be used sparingly to prevent over fertilization and organic matter with a C:N ratio greater than 33:1, will likely result in immobilization where nitrogen is scavenged from the soil by microorganisms.

Compost can be made. The key to composting is to supply a balance of air, water, energy materials and bulking agents. Energy materials are high in moisture, have low porosity and are high in nitrogen. They include fresh crop residue, grass clippings, fresh chicken or rabbit manure, fruit and vegetable waste and garden trimmings. Bulking agents are low in moisture, have high porosity and are low in nitrogen. They include grass hay, wheat straw and corn stalks. There are also materials characterized as balanced, which have low to medium moisture, medium porosity and medium nitrogen. They include ground-up tree and shrub trimmings, horse manure and bedding, deciduous leaves and legume hay and do not have to be mixed with other materials to become compost. The first recipe, from The Oregon-Washington Master Gardener Handbook, is one part energy source and two parts bulking agent, by volume. It is stated, in this source, that this mixture usually gives a reasonable mix for rapid composting, which leads me to think that this next recipe, from How to Grow More Vegetables, would yield faster composting. The recipe is 45% mature (dry) material, 45% immature (green) vegetation, including kitchen wastes, and 10% soil, by volume. It is stated, in this source, adding soil to the compost pile enables the pile to hold moisture better facilitating decomposition, contains microbes enabling decomposition and will reduce nutrient leaching.

Composting tips in The Oregon-Washington Master Gardener Handbook include mixing the pile thoroughly instead of layering it, if all the materials are on hand when you build the pile. And that smaller piece size will increase decomposition. Tips in How to Grow More Vegetables include using at least 3 different types of material of three different textures and locating the pile under the shade of a deciduous tree (excluding walnut trees), but a minimum of 6 feet from the trunk of the tree. Finally, although a pile of about one cubic yard (3’ by 3’ by 3’) may be adequate for year round composting in cold winter areas, bigger is probably better in our area. It is suggested in How to Grow More Vegetables, in colder climates, a minimum compost pile size of two cubic yards (4’ by 4’ by 4’) is needed to properly insulate the heat of the composting process.

Crop residues from cover crops are essential to building soil organic matter, additionally cover crops are valuable in that they capture and recycle nutrients that would otherwise be lost by leaching during the winter, protect the soil surface from rainfall impact, reduce runoff and erosion, suppress weeds, can supply nitrogen and can be a food source. The earlier cover crops are planted the more benefits they provide. Research in western Washington showed that cereal rye planted in September captured three times as much nitrogen as cereal rye planted in October. Winter cover crops can be planted as early as August 1. They make some growth before frost kills them or stops their growth. When harvesting very late season crops, cover crop seed can be sown between the rows a month or less before expected harvest. This technique lets the cover crop get a good start without interfering with vegetable growth. Cover crop residue can either be tilled or dug into the soil before they flower or cut before it blooms and composted. Cover crops may also be harvested for food. After flowering, plants become woody and decline in quality, but that material can be used as the bulking agent in compost piles.

The following table is a work in progress. It lists the cover crops that may work in the Kittitas Valley. The table includes summer cover crops and crops that have the benefit of producing food and compost material. Food crops include amaranth, canola, cereal rye, chickpea, corn, fava bean, lentil, millet, quinoa, barley, wheat, oats and sunflowers. Summer cover crops include buckwheat and corn. Cover crops that provide nitrogen include alfalfa, Austrian winter pea, common vetch, crimson clover, fava bean, hairy vetch, red clover and white clover. Species that break up hard pans include cereal rye. The main reason to grow cover crops is to increase soil organic matter, so choosing crops with large root systems is effective. It is estimated that one cereal rye plant in good soil grows 3 miles of hairs a day, 387 miles of roots a season and 6,603 miles of root hairs each season. Note: Soon cover crops will be added to the Organic Fertilizer Calculator.

Table 4. Cover Crops (work in progress)

Peat, ground bark and wood chips are also examples of organic matter, but they carry baggage. Ground bark and wood chips have such a high C:N ratio, nitrogen immobilization may occur, depending on how they are used. They should not be used in annual beds or vegetable gardens and should not be mixed into the soil. Wood chips are and excellent landscape mulch. The summer 2007 issue of the Master Gardener magazine, which can be accessed at http://www.mastergardeneronline.com/preview/index.php?issue=0707, extols the benefits of using them.

Concerns regarding the use of peat are discussed in the winter 2007 issue of the Master Gardener magazine, which can be accessed at http://www.mastergardeneronline.com/preview/index.php?issue=0107. The following is excerpted from it,

Hundred of years pass for sphagnum moss, the wetland plant that covers the
surface of peat lands, to die, decompose, and accumulate, mixing with native
soil to create sphagnum peat moss.

During this process, these specialized wildly diversified wetland perform critical ecological functions, such as:
Storing carbon, which helps regulate global climate.
Providing habitat for innumerable life forms, including rare, specialist, and endangered plants and animals.
Purifying and collecting water.

Research shows that mining seriously compromises the ecological functions of peat lands even years after restoration…. Changes include:
Release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which exacerbates global climate changes.
Changes in water pH and nutrient levels, which results in repopulation by different vascular plants and animals.
Release of heavy metals, such as arsenic, into water.
Hydrologic changes, such as drying and flooding.

Peat is a common additive to potting mixes. The spring 2007 issue of the Master Gardener magazine, which can be accessed at http://www.mastergardeneronline.com/preview/index.php?issue=0407, discusses choosing the right mix of ingredients and quality.

Two challenges that a gardener may face in the Kittitas Valley are high soil pH and high soil salinity. Vegetables like to grow in pHs between 6 and 7.5. Elemental sulfur lowers soil pH. If you suspect your garden soil has a high pH, in the absence of a soil test, adding about 50 lb. of sulfur per 1,000 sq. ft. is recommended (Oregon-Washington Master Gardener Handbook). To decrease soil salinity, salts can be leached from the soil by applying irrigation in excess of the water holding capacity of the soil. Three inches of excess water removes about half of the soluble salts in a soil and five inches of water removes about 90 percent (The Oregon-Washington Master Gardener Handbook).

Preparing Soil
One method we used to prepare our garden soil was the deep soil preparation described by John Jeavons in How to Grow More Vegetable. There are 4 basic types of deep soil preparation initial double-dig, ongoing double-dig, complete texturizing double-dig and the U-bar dig. Because the soil we inherited was so poor we elected to do the complete texturizing, which was developed to improve soil texture more rapidly and is used one time only in place of the initial double-dig. It involves, defining the dimensions of the bed, getting the soil to the right moisture content so it can be easily dug, loosening the soil with a spading fork and removing the existing vegetation, spreading a ½” to 1” layer of compost over the area, defining the first trench (e.g. 48” wide by 12” long by 12” deep) and removing the soil from it, spreading compost in the trench, loosening the soil 12” deeper with a spading fork, standing on a digging board (e.g. 5/8” by 48” plywood), defining the second trench, loosening and moving the soil from it to the first trench, spreading compost in the trench and loosening the soil 12” deeper with the spading fork, raking after every 3 to 4 trenches to level the soil, repeating these steps until the last trench is filled out with some of the soil removed from the first trench. Due to the expansion of the soil volume with air, all of the soil removed from the first trench is not needed to fill out the last trench. Finally the fertilizers are sifted, using the spading fork, into the upper 2 to 4 inches of the soil, the bed is tamped with the digging board if there is excess air and the bed is planted.

The goal of double-digging is to loosen the upper 24” of the soil, without mixing it. The upper layer of soil, especially, should not be turned over during double-digging in order to minimize disturbance to natural soil layering and to soil organisms, about ¾ of the beneficial soil organisms inhabit the upper 6 inches of the soil.

The basic types of deep soil preparation differ in the following ways. Complete texturing differs from the initial double-dig in that compost is mixed into the upper 12 inches and another layer of compost is added before loosening the lower 12 inches. The ongoing double-dig differs from the initial double-dig in that that the compost is put on after the digging and sifted into the upper 2 to 4 inches with the fertilizers. Finally, the U-bar dig, which may be used as a substitute for the ongoing double-dig differs from the ongoing double-dig in that it does not prepare the soil as deeply, as limited by the 18” inch tines, but has the advantage of mixing the soil less.

Video demonstrations of double-digging can be viewed on YouTube at the addresses listed in the resources section or a comprehensive video demonstration is available for sale from Bountiful Gardens, the video is entitled “Dig It!”.

Soil Conservation
The lowest hanging fruit, enabling us to grow food in the soils we inherit, is soil conservation. It is the most cost-effective stewardship method to prevent soil loss, organic matter loss and soil compaction. Remember, regarding soil function, soil loss reduces the supply of nutrients and water. Soil compaction retards root growth and the circulation of air and water. And, organic matter loss accelerates erosion and may decrease water retention, structure, porosity, and resistance to compaction. These conditions are not easily reversed given the amount of time it takes for easily crumbled, humus and nutrient enriched soil to develop.

Conservation measures include using management practices that increase soil organic matter, minimizing bare soil by using mulches and cover crops and not working the soil when it is too wet or too dry or too much. Working excessively wet soil can destroy soil structure. Plowing wet soils with a tractor is especially damaging, as it creates a compaction layer that inhibits root growth, a rule of thumb is if it stays in a mud ball it is too wet. If it is powdery and clumped, it is too dry. If it crumbles freely, it is about right. If soil sticks to a shovel, or the turned surface is shiny and smooth when spading, it is still too wet. Clay soils are most easily compacted. Do not pulverize the soil. Over-tilling also destroys soil structure.

Soil is the medium in which so much of what we consume grows and it takes a long time for it to develop and no time to lose. In the US in 1995, approximately 1/28 of an inch of farmable soil was lost per acre due to wind and water erosion. Conversely, on the average, 1/500 of an inch of farmable soil is being built up naturally in the US each year. Thus the soil is being depleted 18 times faster than it is being built up in nature.

In conclusion, we have, in large part, inherited the soil we use to prosper today. Our challenge and that of future generations will not be growing vegetables, raising cattle or growing trees but will be building the soil on which they depend.

Resources
Local Labs that do soil fertility testing include:
Analytical Sciences Laboratory
Holm Research Center
University of Idaho
Moscow, ID 83844-2203
(208) 885-7081

NW Agricultural Consultants
2545 West Falls
Kennewick, WA 99336
(509) 783-7450

Soiltest farm consultants
2925 Driggs Drive
Moses Lake, WA 98837
1-800-764-1622
http://www.soiltestlab.com/

US Ag Analytical Services
1320 E Spokane Street
Pasco, WA 99301
(509) 547-3838

Andrews, N. and J. Foster. User Guide Organic Fertilizer Calculator, Oregon State University, 2007.

Chalker-Scott, Linda. “Wood Chip Mulch: Landscape Boon or Bane?”. Master Gardener 1.3 (2007): 21-23. < http://www.mastergardeneronline.com/preview/index.php?issue=0707>

Dig It! Video DVD. < http://www.bountifulgardens.org/products.asp?dept=112>

Dodge, John c. and Darrell O Turner. . Fertilizer Guide: Home Vegetable Garden for Irrigated Central Washington. Puyallup, Washington, Washington State University Cooperative Extension, 1982.

Fertilizer Recommendations for Home Gardens and Landscaping compiled by soiltest farm consultants. Moses Lake, WA, soiltest farm consultants.

Forest Soil Productivity. 1992. http://nrs.fs.fed.us/fmg/nfmg/docs/mn/Soils.pdf

Gerwing, Jim and Ron Gelderman. Cooperative Extension Service, South Dakota State University and U.S. Department of Agriculture, Fertilizer Recommendations Guide, South Dakota, South Dakota State University. 2005.

Jeavons, John. How to Grow More Vegetables. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 2006.

Jeavons, John. “The Global Farm: The Challenge and the Solution”. Proceedings from the 2000 Soil, Food and People Conference Presented by Ecology Action at the University of California - Davis. Ed. Hugh Roberts. Willits: Ecology Action, 2001. 6-13

Magdoff, Fred and Harold Van Es. Building Soils for Better Crops:Sustainable Soil Management Third Edition. Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE) program. 2009 http://www.sare.org/publications/bsbc/bsbc.pdf

Munts, Pat. “Potting Mixes”. Master Gardener 1.2 (2007): 10-13. http://www.mastergardeneronline.com/preview/index.php?issue=0407

Nelson, Dan. Soiltest farm consultants. Telephone interview. 15 January 2010.

Oregon State University. Organic Fertilizer Calculator. http://smallfarms.oregonstate.edu/organic-fertilizer-calculator/register

Riskin, Cindy Shyev. "Too Popular Peat." Master Gardener 1.1 (2007): 18-19. http://www.mastergardeneronline.com/preview/index.php?issue=0107

Soiltest farm consultants offers Basic Lawn/Garden Sampling Techniques at http://www.soiltestlab.com/forms/GardenReqForm.pdf

Soiltest farm consultants offers a General Soil Test Interpretation Guide at http://www.soiltestlab.com/forms/soil-handout.pdf

Sustainable Gardening, The Oregon-Washington Master Gardener Handbook. Oregon State University, 2008.

Washington State University Fertilizer Guides & Summary http://grant-adams.wsu.edu/agriculture/General/fertilizerguides/Washington%20State%20Fertilizer%20Guides/Indexfertguide.html . Species specific papers with local, but dated crop nutrient requirement information are listed on the Washington State University Fertilizer Guides & Summary page.

Washington State University Master Gardener on-line Training. Washington State University, 2009. http://lms.wsu.edu/

Web Soil Survey. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. Jan. 2010. http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/

YouTube videos on double-digging http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jx9pM9tPOWM, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_55121lPJNE&feature=PlayList&p=CE8F29A0D946E73C&playnext=1&playnext_from=PL&index=3,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n1xcDrLjcKU&feature=PlayList&p=CE8F29A0D946E73C&playnext=1&playnext_from=PL&index=4
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xPivuNSm4Hc&feature=PlayList&p=CE8F29A0D946E73C&playnext=1&playnext_from=PL&index=5

Conversions: One 5 gallon bucket equals 0.67 cubic feet. There is 43,560 sq ft in an acre. If an application calls for 1 five gallon bucket of material, divide 0.67 by the number of sq ft of area to which the material is to be applied. The result is depth in feet, to convert to inches divide by 12. Assuming the upper 6 inches of soil weighs 2 million pounds, the weight of organic material in 6 inches of soil that contains 1% organic matter is 20,000 pounds.

Tree Pruning

2009-06-17T21:19:00.000-07:00

June 8, 2009

By Thembi Borras

Pruning involves removing the lower branches from live trees.

Why prune?
Pruning is an important practice to reduce fire hazard, but must be done properly so tree health is not compromised. Pruning may also improve safety, aesthetics, timber quality and tree vigor. Trees along roads are excellent candidates for pruning to create a fuel break or to facilitate quicker road surface drying.

How to prune? Following are guidelines for pruning:

Make pruning cuts where two limbs intersect or where limbs intersect the main tree trunk.

Make the final pruning cut just outside the branch collar. Avoid "flush cuts" which remove the branch collar or "stub cuts" which leave branch stubs protruding beyond the branch collar. The branch collar is the swollen area at the base of a branch where it connects to the trunk and contains special tissue that prevents decay from moving downward from the branch into the trunk.

For large limbs, make an undercut so that when the branch separates it doesn't strip off bark from the bole of the tree. The following figure (copied from USFS publication NA-FR-01-95 entitled, How to Prune Trees by Peter J. Bedker et al and illustrations by Julie Martinez of Afton, MN) displays a cutting sequence to minimize pruning damage:

If there is reason to remove a large number of live limbs, it may be prudent to prune the tree in stages increasing the distance from the ground to the lowest limb slowly, pruning a portion of limbs each year.

Consider staggering the distance between the ground and the height of the lowest limbs to avoid the “lollipop look”.

Hand saws can be used if the branch can be reached. Otherwise, use a telescoping pole saw or shear. Visit http://ext.nrs.wsu.edu/handtools/tools/pruning/index.htm to view power and hand tools for pruning.

Be careful not to scar the bole as the scar may invite the introduction of stem rot fungi into the tree.

There is no need to apply any kind of “wound dressing” to the prune scars.

Use recommended safety equipment, such as eye protection, hard hat, gloves and sturdy footwear. Use common sense and be safe.

When to prune?
Pruning can be done anytime during the year. However, consider pruning during the dormant season when the sap is flowing less. Try to avoid pruning during the spring and early summer when the tree is actively growing and is easily damaged. Another reason to avoid pruning during the growing season is that beetles are most active and are attracted to the sap from the pruning wound.

The area out to 200 feet from a home is referred to as defensible space. Trees in the defensible space and along emergency vehicle access routes should be pruned first.

Which trees should be pruned?
Pruning takes time and energy so to optimize these precious resources pick the best trees to prune and thin out the worst. There is an excellent article containing characteristics of “leave” trees and characteristics of “cut” trees in the winter 2008 edition of SW Oregon Woodland News entitled Thin for Quality, Not Spacing and can be accessed at http://extension.oregonstate.edu/sorec/sites/default/files/documents/WoodlandNewsJan08newsletter2.pdf.

The following is excerpted from it:
GUIDELINES: So what makes a high quality tree?
Following are some guidelines for “leave” and “cut” trees that relate to tree quality. These are all characteristics you can “eyeball” out in the woods.

Characteristics of “leave” trees
• Good live crown ratio (30% or greater)
• Good height growth for species and age
• Symmetrical crown with “pointy top”
• Abundant foliage with good color
• Good form (straight, without sweeps, crooks, forks, etc.)
• Species is well suited to the site over the long term

Characteristics of “cut trees”
• Poor crown ratio (<30%)
• Poor height growth and crown form (flat or rounded top, lopsided)
• Foliage is sparse or off-color
• Poor form
• Species not well suited to the site

Additional considerations include exposure to sun or wind. Sunscald is a tree bole injury that can result from pruning. This injury is more likely to occur on trees on the southwest side of a low density stand. To avoid sunscald a buffer of unpruned trees can be left on the south and west side of the stand. Similarly, to avoid wind damage unpruned trees and trees that would otherwise be “cut” trees can be left on the side of the stand from which prevailing winds blow to serve as a buffer.

How much to prune? Live crown ratio is an important concept to understand in determining how much of the crown to prune. Live crown ratio is the percentage of the total height of the tree that is occupied by the live green crown. For example, if the crown length, measured from the leader tip to the base of the live crown, is 55 ft and the total tree height is 100 ft, then the live crown ratio is 55%. Post pruning, the live crown ratio should be no less than 40% and preferably 50%. Therefore in this example, you can safely prune the lower 5 feet of live crown and no more than 15 feet. Dead limbs below the live crown do not factor into this calculation and should be pruned.

Another important consideration, especially within the defensible space is reducing ladder fuels which is vegetation that connects ground vegetation to tree crowns facilitating a ground fire becoming a crown fire, which moves much more rapidly. Reducing ladder fuels may be accomplished by, in part, removing “cut trees” and pruning “leave” trees. The minimum distance between the shrub layer and the canopy should be, at least, 4 times the height of the shrub layer. For example, if the shrub layer is 3 feet tall then the lowest limbs of the overstory trees should be 15 feet above the ground.

A portion of this article was gleaned from Conifer Pruning Basics for Family Forest Landowners available at http://cru.cahe.wsu.edu/CEPublications/eb1984/EB1984.pdf, the chapter on pruning in the Oregon-Washington Master Gardener Handbook entitled Sustainable Gardening and the article entitled Thin for Quality, Not Spacing in the winter 2008 edition of the SW Oregon WOODLAND NEWS.

Tree Judging

2009-05-28T23:36:00.000-07:00

prepared for Washington Farm Forestry Association field day exercise

By Thembi Borras, Forester (thembi@mcn.org)

Judging trees is required of field foresters, it informs which trees are retained and how the forest will behave and look after treatment. Tree judging is a skill forest landowners may wish to develop. There are numerous contexts, including improving forest health, in which tree judging is valuable. The criterion on which a tree may be judged within the context of improving forest health may include crown quality, diameter, height, ring count and basal area.

Indicators of crown quality include live crown ratio, crown class and crown vigor. Live crown ratio is the ratio of crown length to total tree height. For example, if the crown length, measured from the leader tip to the base of the crown, is 40 ft and the total tree height is 80 ft, then the live crown ratio is 50%. There are four commonly recognized crown classes dominant (trees with well-developed crowns that extend above the general level of the crown cover and receive full light from above and partly from the side), codominant (trees with medium-sized crowns that form the general level of the crown cover and receive full light from above but comparatively little from the sides), intermediate (trees with small crowns that extend into the crown cover formed by codominant and dominant trees, but receive little direct light from above and none from the sides) and suppressed (trees with very small crowns that are entirely below the general level of the crown cover and receive no direct light either from above or from the sides). Crown vigor indicators include branch mortality, twig dieback, thin foliage, foliage discoloration and missing crown area. Trees with a live crown ratio of less than 30%, which are suppressed or intermediate and have poor crown vigor are candidates for removal when thinning. Remember to evaluate the crown quality; the observer must get far enough away from the base of the tree to see the crown.

Diameter is usually measured with a diameter tape or a Biltmore stick, but in the absence of these tools a flexible measuring tape can be used to measure the diameter. The diameter of a tree is measured at breast height, which is defined as 4.5 feet above the ground on the uphill side of the tree. The circumference of the tree is what is measured by wrapping the tape around it, making sure there are no kinks in the tape and the tape does not sag. To convert the circumference to the diameter, divide by 3.14. For example if the circumference is 82", dividing by 3.14 will yield a result of 26"; therefore the diameter at breast height (dbh) of the tree is 26". Height is usually measured with a clinometer, but basic tools including a measuring tape and two sticks of equal length can be used to measure the height of a tree. Find the center point on one of the sticks; hold the other stick perpendicular to it, effectively making the letter "T". Step away from the tree until the top and bottom of it are in view. Put the base of the "T" between your eyes, and then walk away or toward the tree until the top and bottom of the stick line up with the top and bottom of the tree. Make a mark on the ground, the distance between your mark and the tree is the total height of the tree, if you are on flat ground. If you are on sloped ground, the slope distance will need to be converted to horizontal distance. Tree height in relation to tree age is a measure of site quality. Site quality expresses the average productivity of an area for growing trees. The higher the site the more healthy trees it can support.

Tree rings represent the annual growth of a tree and can be measured with an increment borer. The tree rings are easily counted, measured and visually inspected on the core extracted from the increment borer. The higher the number of rings per given length of core, the slower the growth. Trees that are growing slowly as compared to their similarly aged neighbors may be candidates for removal when thinning.

Basal area is a measure of stand density and is often measured with a prism, but tree diameter can be converted to basal area. Basal area is the cross-sectional area in square feet taken up by an individual tree trunk at dbh; basal area per acre is the sum of these individual values for all the trees growing in 1 acre. Basal area of a given tree is calculated by squaring the dbh and multiplying the result by .005454. For example, a tree with a dbh of 13.54” represents 1 sq ft. Trees may be thinned to reduce basal area, so limited resources are allocated on fewer trees, to improve forest health.

A portion of this information was gleaned from Log Scaling and Timber Cruising by Bell and Dilworth, 1988 and Tree Judging: A Quantifiable, Hands-On Tool To Teach Forest Genetics And Applied Silviculture by Christopher C. Schnepf.

Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)

2009-05-12T13:04:00.000-07:00

from presentation, given to the community, which was sponsored by the Ellensburg Library and EcoBuilding Guild

By Thembi Borras

My Involvement with FSC
I have been involved in forestry for more than two decades. I received my forestry degree from Humboldt State University. Soon after graduating, I went to work for the Institute for Sustainable Forestry, where I began working with FSC. And less than a year later I met my mentor, a consulting forester and FSC certified Natural Resource Manager. For the next decade I worked for him servicing non industrial private forestland owners in Northern California writing long term management plans, marking trees, administering logging, inventorying roads, creating erosion control plans and conducting plant, owl and archaeological surveys. During the last three years I have continued the same line of work in my own business and relocated to Ellensburg, Washington and last year began auditing companies against the FSC Chain of Custody standard.

The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)
The FSC formed out of concern for the loss of the world’s forests and the failure of intergovernmental organizations to address rapid deforestation. 130 representatives of environmental groups, forestry operations, human rights groups, and commercial interests came together in the first General Assembly to form the FSC in 1993. The FSC is an independent, non-governmental, not for profit organization.

The mission of it is to promote environmentally appropriate, socially beneficial, and economically viable management of the world's forests.

The Forest Stewardship Council is an international association of members consisting of a diverse group of representatives from environmental and social groups, the timber trade and the forestry profession, indigenous people's organizations, responsible corporations, community forestry groups and forest product certification organizations from around the world. The General Assembly of FSC Members is the highest decision-making body in FSC, and meets at least once every three years. The FSC General Assembly is made up of three membership chambers: Environmental, Social and Economic. The purpose of the chamber structure is to maintain the balance of voting power between different interests without having to limit the number of members. Each chamber has 1/3 of the voting power in the general assembly and motions require an affirmative vote of 2/3 of the total vote to be adopted.

What does the FSC do?
It sets standards, provides FSC trademark assurance and it accredits certification bodies to conduct certifications to the FSC standards.

There are 5 certification bodies that operate in North America. Scientific Certification Systems (SCS) and SmartWood are two with whom I have worked and are two of the three original certification bodies.

How does FSC certification work?
There are two types of certification, Forest Management and Chain of Custody. Forest Management (FM) certification applies to the actual forestland or the source. Chain of Custody (COC) certification applies to the manufacturing and distribution chain that certified wood travels before being purchased.

Forest Management (FM) Certification
To achieve Forest Management certification, forest management practices must meet the FSC’s Principles and Criteria and any FSC regional standards that may be present in the area. They must then be certified by an FSC accredited, third party auditor. Following is a summary of FSC Principles and Criteria:
-Conversion of forests or any other natural habitat is prohibited.
-International workers rights must be respected.
-Use of hazardous chemicals is prohibited.
-Human rights with particular attention to indigenous peoples must be respected.
-All applicable laws must be followed and areas that need special protection, such as sacred sites and endangered species habitat, must be identified and managed appropriately.
Although, many of these points appear almost basic, in many places even these basic requirements are not fulfilled and are where FSC can have the biggest positive impact.

Within the US, there are 9 approved regional standards covering the forested portions of the entire continental US that are applied “above and beyond” the Principles and Criteria.

FSC is different from other certification systems, which include the American Tree Farm System, the Sustainable Forestry Initiative, the Canadian Standards Association, the International Organization for Standardization and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification Schemes. FSC is the only forest certification endorsed by the nation’s leading environmental organizations.

In 2008 Yale conducted a study to evaluate competing forestry certification schemes against the US Green Building Council goals and objectives, key points of controversy are compared at http://www.yale.edu/forestcertification/ForCert_ControversyMatrix070808.xls. FSC is found to be a more comprehensive and prescriptive standard on issues such as chemicals, clearcutting, maintenance of old growth structure and riparian management. Around the world, only FSC prohibits conversion of natural forests, the use of highly hazardous pesticides, the cultivation of genetically modified trees (GMOs) and respects the rights of indigenous peoples. It makes sense then that FSC certified products are the only certified forest products that are accepted by all residential and commercial green building programs in North America. To the credit of the FSC, strongly entrenched differences separate FSC from other systems, at a time when other certification systems are harmonizing. Other sources that compare certification systems include:
http://www.yale.edu/forestcertification/USGBCFinal.htm (YPFPG Final Report to USGBC)
http://www.yale.edu/forestcertification/AppA_YPFPGCompMatrix022508.xls (Yale comprehensive comparison of standards)
http://www.certifiedwoodsearch.org/matrix/matrix.aspx (Comparison of Forest Certification Systems)
Yale FAQ about certification: http://www.yale.edu/forestcertification/faq.html

To date, 279 million acres of forests are FSC certified and over 13,000 Chain of Custody certificates have been issued in 81 countries.

FSC certified forests in Washington State include the City of Seattle Cedar River Municipal Watershed, Fort Lewis Military Installation, the Washington Department of Natural Resources South Puget Habitat Conservation Plan Planning Unit (http://www.dnr.wa.gov/BusinessPermits/Topics/TimberSaleAuction/Pages/lm_forest_certification.aspx) and the Northwest Natural Resource Group, which recently certified around 600 acres on the east side that belong to The Nature Conservancy. Recently, Peter Goldmark, Public Lands Commissioner in Washington State, suggested moving all state land management practices in a direction that would meet FSC standards.

Chain of Custody (COC) Certification
Chain of Custody or COC refers to the succession of ownership of wood products. A cornerstone of consumer confidence is the ability to track wood from the time it leaves the forest through the manufacturing and distribution channels, in order to ensure that what is labeled as a certified product can be traced back to a certified source.

Each company in the chain must hold a valid certificate, which ensures that they have a system of accountability in place, are in fact buying certified inputs, are accountable for tracking material through their systems and are making accurate and verifiable claims to their customers. The chain-of-custody certification process is basically a verification of a company’s ability to separately track all FSC materials throughout their business, from purchasing and inventory control to manufacture and sale. For most companies in North America this is a very simple, non-invasive process that verifies existing good business practices.

Chain of Custody certification is important because without it there would be no mechanism for rooting out fraud. It provides companies with a license to use the registered FSC names and trademarks in trade and it gives specifiers, commercial buyers and the public assurance that their purchasing decision is tied to environmental performance.

Who needs a COC certificate?
You need a COC certificate if you take legal ownership of FSC certified product, and wish to pass on a commercial claim that the product is certified, whether that claim is on-product, on an invoice, or in other communication. There is some confusion as to whether lumber retailers need a certificate. They do in order to pass on the FSC claim to their client, particularly if the client is a manufacturer, such as a cabinetmaker, architectural millworks company or truss manufacturer who needs to make a FSC claim themselves or if the client is a contractor who needs proof of FSC certification to fulfill LEED requirements. On the other hand, the homeowner may have a lower threshold of proof and choose to buy FSC certified material from an entity that is not a certificate holder. The bottom line is anyone can sell FSC certified wood, but the chain of custody is broken with the last certificate holder and only a certificate holder has a certificate number, can label a product, modify a claim or make a claim.

The number of COC certificates issued to US companies has been rising. The factors contributing to this growth are the green building program, LEED and the print industry.

Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)
There are dozens of Green Building Programs in the US, LEED is a national green building standard developed by the US Green Building Council which formed in 1993 to promote energy efficient green buildings. LEED, which stands for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED), measures how well a building or community performs across all the metrics that include: energy savings, water efficiency, CO2 emissions reduction, improved indoor environmental quality, and stewardship of resources and sensitivity to their impacts.

LEED has four certification levels that encourage higher levels of achievement. Under the new rating system, version 3, 40-49 points are required to be certified, 50-59 to meet silver, 60-79 to meet gold and 80+ points to achieve platinum out of 100 possible points and 10 bonus points. For more information, go to: http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=1447
http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=1988
http://www.fsccanada.org/leed.htm

Registered projects can gain one point in the materials and resources category if 50% (by cost) of all wood based materials are FSC certified. Another point may be gained in the innovation in operations category if a much higher percent is used. Usually only wood permanently installed in the building counts.

The percentage of FSC content is multiplied by the cost, the resultant value is counted toward the credit and the balance counts against it.

According to the March 2008 edition of Architectural Products, “LEED-certified projects now account for roughly 10%-15% of the total US construction market.” Prominent LEED projects include the 7 World Trade Center in New York, CityCenter Casino in Las Vegas, Nationals Park in Washington D.C., the Indianapolis International Airport and Traugott Terrace, an urban infill project in Downtown Seattle.

Print Industry
The other factor contributing to the growth in Chain of Custody is the Print Industry, which represents 25- 30% of FSC Chain of Custody. The number of certificate holders that are printers increased significantly between 2005 and 2009.

Consumers of printed matter are asking that their posters, brochures, calendars, newsletters, books, envelopes and inaugural invitations be printed on FSC stock. It is critical for there to be numerous active players at the source, in manufacturing, in distribution and in the marketplace for the whole thing to work.

Benefits of FSC Certification
Benefits to FSC certification may include entrance into new markets, a positive public image, increased credibility to environmental claims, real and perceived risk reduction for Boards of Directors and shareholders, a price premium and may lead to continuous improvement in decision making and profitability through external examination.

FSC Label
FSC certified wood and pulp can originate from well-managed forests, post consumer recycled content or be a combination of FSC certified wood fiber, recycled content and other controlled sources. There are three types of FSC labels that can be found on FSC certified products, FSC Pure, FSC Recycled and FSC Mixed Sources. Only products from verified FSC certified sources may carry the FSC’s “checkmark-and-tree” label.

Labels include the FSC “checkmark-and-tree” logo, the recycled content if applicable, the origin of the material and the certificate number of the manufacturer or printer. You can use the certificate number to look up more information about the certificate holder at http://www.fsc-info.org/.

Specifying FSC Wood Products in Building Projects
First, the question must be asked of your homebuilder, remodeler, architect, or building material supply store, “Can we do this project with FSC certified wood products?” Then ensure that the information discovered during the design phase related to grade, delivery times, and species are included in the specifications, so contractors are aware if special steps need to be taken to secure products. To make it easier for the contractor, you can develop a FSC qualified vendor list. When it comes to ordering material, request “FSC certified” material for each appropriate line-item as opposed to a blanket specification for all wood products and order in advance because FSC products are not always stocked at local material suppliers. When you receive the material verify the claim on the invoice and validity of the supplier’s certificate at http://www.fsc-info.org/. For more information you can download the Designing & Building with FSC Guide from www.fscus.org/dandbwithfsc.org.

Common Misconceptions
Common misconceptions about FSC certified forest products are that they are too expensive, but in fact not all FSC certified products are more expensive, it depends. In March of 2008, I bought FSC certified two by fours for 0.47/LF, at that time two by fours from conventional sources were only a few cents less. In March of this year I bought two by fours for 0.45/LF, which although lower than the year before was twice the price of two by fours from conventional sources, but this year the market has dropped to historic lows. Regarding availability, more products are becoming available in local markets. At a minimum, you can find FSC certified framing lumber, plywood, millworks, flooring and cabinet stock. Poor quality, such as cupped or twisted lumber, should not be more prevalent in FSC certified stock than in stock that is not certified.

Where do you locate FSC certified wood product in Washington?
Following is a list of resources that will help you locate FSC certified wood products in Washington:
• http://www.findfsc.org/ (user friendly)
• http://www.nnrg.org/files/fsc_cocs_wa.xls list of Chain of Custody certificate holders in Washington State
• http://fsccanada.org/FSCpaper.htm#ccc to find FSC certified papers
• www.greenspec.com contains a detailed listings of more than 2,000 environmentally preferable building products
• Locally, Matheus Lumber Company is a COC certificate holder (SGS-COC-006017), Yakima Home Depot has stocked some FSC certified plywood and Knudsons can special order FSC certified wood.

Ideas
Following are ideas that may increase the supply and demand for FSC certified wood products:
• The City and/or County could develop a green checklist and if the homebuilder builds homes according to this green checklist they would have a faster permitting time.
• Requests can be made to suppliers of wood products to source FSC certified material and toward this effort develop a card that people can take to stores with the FSC logo, resources and benefits of sourcing FSC certified material.
• Encourage any mill, chip facility or biomass utilization plant to buy FSC certified material.
• Increase the supply of FSC certified logs and chips by encouraging more landowners to join “the program”. The Northwest Natural Resource Group has a program and you can learn more about it at (http://www.nnrg.org/nw-certified-forestry).

On the Ground Impact
Will my home remodeling project or new home purchase really make a difference in the forest? In response to this question, the Rainforest Alliance has researched 129 companies in 21 countries that manage FSC certified forests to determine the effectiveness of FSC certification. As a result of FSC certification over 60% improved their worker safety and worker training programs, over 60% improved the forested areas around rivers, wetlands and other waterways, over 60% increased the monitoring of sensitive High Conservation Values Forests, over 60% have better identified threatened and endangered species habitat, over 50% have improved reforestation programs and 50% have reduced the use of chemicals. And even though many of these companies were practicing forestry according to their local, regional or national forestry laws, there was still significant room for improvement.

Conclusion
I recognize the benefits of buying or specifying FSC certified wood products is less tangible than conserving energy by installing insulation or generating solar heated water and electricity from the sun because you can’t calculate how quickly the thing will pay for itself based on the electricity or gas saved. However, keep in mind it means something in the forest. FSC incentivizes better forestry, beyond the business as usual model. According to a recent study by the Global Canopy Programme (GCP) deforestation contributes 25% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions. As globalization takes hold, more and more wood comes from outside the US. Your choices in wood products drive not only the protection of biodiversity but also the fate of indigenous communities, the protection of water resources, and the ongoing removal of carbon gasses from our atmosphere.

Sources
Following is the list of sources I used in the development of this presentation:
• Forest Stewardship Council http://www.fsc.org/
• Emily Jaklitsch, FSC http://www.fscus.org/
• Aaron Maizlish, SCS http://www.scscertified.com/
• Building & Remodeling with FSC and the 2008 FSC Manufacturing and Sales Guide developed by Terry Campbell of Forest Products Solutions
• 2006 Forest Certification in North America by E. Hansen et al.
• Design and Building with FSC http://fscus.org/green_building/designing_building.php
• Northwest Natural Resource Group: http://www.nnrg.org/nw-certified-forestry certified-forestry

Resources
Following is a list of resources:
For more information about FSC
• Forest Stewardship Council http://www.fsc.org/
• Forest Stewardship Council US http://www.fscus.org/
Search for FSC certified wood products
• http://www.findfsc.org/ (user friendly)
• FSC certified wood product suppliers in WA www.nnrg.org/files/fsc_cocs_wa.xls
• Find FSC-certified Papers fsccanada.org/FSCpaper.htm#ccc
• www.greenspec.com listing of > 2,000 environmentally preferable building products
• FSC Canada www.fsccanada.org/FindWoodProducts.htm#distributors
• FSC registered Certificates http://www.fsc-info.org/
To become FSC certified
• Scientific Certification Systems http://www.scscertified.com/
• Rainforest Alliance SmartWood www.rainforest-alliance.org/forestry
For more information about LEED
• USGBC http://www.usgbc.org/
• FSC US www.fscus.org/green_building/
• SCS www.scscertified.com/ecoproducts/
Certification systems comparisons
http://www.yale.edu/forestcertification/ForCert_ControversyMatrix070808.xls
http://www.yale.edu/forestcertification/USGBCFinal.htm (YPFPG Final Report to USGBC)
http://www.yale.edu/forestcertification/AppA_YPFPGCompMatrix022508.xls (Yale comprehensive comparison of standards)
http://www.certifiedwoodsearch.org/matrix/matrix.aspx (Comparison of Forest Certification Systems)
Yale FAQ about certification: http://www.yale.edu/forestcertification/faq.html

Utilizing Woody Biomass

2009-03-30T12:50:00.000-07:00

printed in the Kittitas County Conservation District April 2009 newsletter

By Thembi Borras

What is Biomass?
In the context of forests, a definition of biomass is woody material that accumulates to an amount that becomes a hazard or a management or disposal problem. Biomass is generated during fire hazard reduction, forest health improvement and from logging, it includes:
· Branches from pruning
· Small diameter trees from thinning
· Slash (tree tops, branches, broken stems) from operations

The Development of Biomass
Biomass is, in part, stored carbon and nutrients, the products of unique processes of plants.

Photosynthesis changes inorganic carbon (carbon dioxide) into organic carbon (carbohydrate). Organic carbon is translocated in vascular tissue from a source, such as a mature needle, to a sink such as roots, the tree bole, and developing cones. Organic carbon is used by the tree to increase biomass and provides the energy to build and maintain that biomass.

Transpiration transports minerals from the soil throughout the plant. In the above ground part of the tree, the needles, leaves, twigs and branches contain a significant portion these nutrients.

The following is excerpted from Keeping Our Forest Soils Healthy and Productive, a publication of WSU Extension. “Removing tree trunks may have little effect on site productivity, but “cleaning up” branches and foliage (i.e., slash) appears to have greater potential for nutrient removal than leaving them onsite.”

Biomass Treatment Today
Usually biomass is seen as a nuisance to be disposed of quickly to reduce fire hazard, improve aesthetics and minimize habitat for undesirable insects. The least expensive way to get rid of biomass has been to pile and burn it, but in doing so carbon dioxide is released and the heat and energy created by combustion is not utilized. Also, the nutrients, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur, stored in the biomass are volatilized and lost to the atmosphere while other nutrients such as calcium, magnesium and potassium become available in the short term, but are easily leached.

Biomass Utilization
Biomass is a resource and higher and better uses for it include:
· Biomass may be left on-site, which will likely require that it be modified to reduce fire hazard, improve aesthetics and minimize habitat for undesirable insects. Modification methods include lopping and scattering and chipping. Slash may also be crushed into road surfaces no longer in use to augment existing drainage and reduce surface erosion. In this scenario, the release of carbon and nutrients stored in the biomass is metered. Note: Wood chips are one of the best mulch choices for trees and shrubs. They perform well in terms of moisture retention, temperature moderation and weed control. For more information, go to http://www.puyallup.wsu.edu/~Linda%20Chalker-Scott/Horticultural%20Myths_files/Myths/Wood%20chips%202007.pdf
· Biomass, in the form of logs as short as 12’ and with a small end diameter of 2”, may be sold into the chip market. For example, a local landowner may be able to cover operational and hauling expenses if they are within 10 miles of the chipping facility in Cle Elum. Biomass may also be chipped before it is hauled; more biomass can be hauled in chip form than as logs. The advantage of this scenario is that it may help offset the cost of fire hazard reduction or forest health improvement projects. Note: Chips may be used in the pulp industry for paper, rayon or lyocell or the engineered wood products industry. Try to schedule fuel reduction projects to begin after Sept 1 when trees are beginning to go into dormancy when beetles are not as attracted to fresh cuts and slash. Also, in most circumstances, if the project yields less than 5,000 board feet of timber per 12 month period and will be used by the landowner, a Forest Practice Application/ Notification is not needed. Otherwise, a Forest Practice Application/ Notification must be approved by the Washington Department of Natural Resources before operations begin.
· Biomass can be burned in controlled systems to produce heat and/or energy. At the smallest scale, firewood for home heating systems can be gleaned from slash piles that would otherwise be burnt. The following are the approximate number of British Thermal Units (BTUs) produced per air dried cord burned of local species that may be found in a slash pile. Douglas-fir generates 21 million BTUs, white fir 20 million BTUs and ponderosa pine 17 million BTUs. A BTU is the amount of heat necessary to raise one pound of water by 1 degree Fahrenheit (F). A million BTUs equal 293 kilowatt hours. Therefore, one cord of Douglas-fir represents 6,153 kilowatt hours, a number of interest if you heat with electricity. For more information about this opportunity contact the Washington State Department of Natural Resources, the Southeast Headquarters of which can be contacted at 509-925-8510 or the United States Forest Service, which can be contacted at 509-962-9813; usually permits are available by the beginning of June. At a larger scale, biomass may be burned to create heat and/or energy for community facilities such as schools and hospitals. The Enterprise School replaced its oil boilers with an automated wood chip boiler. Due to rising heating oil costs, the school is projected to save over $110,000 annually on energy costs with the new system. To watch a video about this project, go to http://www.sustainablenorthwest.org/quick-links/resources/biomass/the-enterprise-school-project. The following is excerpted from the 2008 publication Where Wood Works Strategies for Heating with Woody Biomass prepared by the Flexible Energy Communities Initiative, “Chip systems are well-suited for large buildings and campuses. Successful projects get their chips locally, usually within 30 miles or so. Chip-handling systems are complex and expensive to build and operate. This is offset by the low cost of the fuel.”
· Biomass may be sold into the compost market.Biomass in the form of small diameter logs may be peeled into round wood products such as poles and posts or sawn into dimensional lumber.

Challenges
Challenges to biomass utilization include hauling distance to markets, processing cost, quality of product and storage. Overcoming these challenges, by in part, developing local markets may be advantageous in job creation, fire hazard reduction, forest health improvement and community self sufficiency.

Thembi Borras is a forester living and working in Kittitas County, WA and can be contacted by email at thembi@mcn.org.

Valley View Fire-Defensible Space

2009-01-31T12:46:00.000-08:00

printed in the Kittitas County Conservation District January 2009 newletter

By Thembi Borras

In July of 2008, 11 homes and more than 1,000 acres burned. This loss happened to occur in the Park Hill community in Spokane, WA as a result of the Valley View Fire, but this loss could have occurred in any number of communities in the wildland/urban interface closer to home. The wildland/urban interface is the term used when nature and homes intersect. People are drawn to the solitude, views, privacy and beauty that living in nature brings, but when we build a home that is surrounded by forest or brush, eventually the dangers of living in nature become apparent. Fire can burn the shelter we create. Ironically, people are drawn to nature only to have to modify it to protect life and property.

A fire needs fuel, heat and oxygen to burn and an ignition source to get it started. Fuels, at least, can be manipulated to minimize the risk of loss. In fact, several homes in the path of the fire in the Park Hill community survived because their owners had created a defensible space. Seeing a house that survived next to a home that did not in a severely burned landscape is sobering.

To create a defensible space, it is important to first identify the “hot side”, which is the direction from which fires will most likely approach and is based, in part, on the prevailing wind direction in the summer, percent slope and aspect. For example, the northwest side is the “hot side” for many homes in Sky Meadows, a community located in Upper Kittitas County, because the prevailing wind direction in the summer is from the northwest and many homes sit at the break in slope to take advantage of the view of Mount Stuart. Identifying the “hot side” will help to prioritize the areas to focus on first. Sadly, the homeowners in the Park Hill community had just initiated a fire hazard reduction program but not much work had been done before the fire swept through the area. One landowner had a machine masticate the brush along his driveway beneath an overstory of ponderosa pine, but had not yet had a chance to get to the steep area below his house choked with hundreds of tiny seedlings and brush. The ponderosa pine survived, but his home did not.

In general, the area out to 200 feet is referred to as defensible space. It should incorporate both the landscape and construction Firewise principles (http://www.firewise.org/) as well as provide access for a fire truck and a safe spot for fire fighters to defend a home. The area surrounding a home can be separated into three commonly recognized zones each warranting an increasing level of attention the closer the zone is to the home. They are:

Zero to Thirty Feet (Zone 1): This is the most critical zone. Create a five foot fire-free area on all sides of all structures using non flammable landscaping materials or annuals or perennials with a high moisture content. In the balance of the zone, remove all flammable vegetation or other combustible growth and water plants and trees well or consider xeriscaping. When landscaping, consider the use of fuel breaks such as gravel, or stone paths, well-watered lawn areas, fire resistant and native plants and water features. These act as non-flammable breaks between fuel sources that can help keep a ground fire from spreading. Maintain single specimen trees, ornamental shrubbery or similar plants such that they do not form a means of transmitting a fire from them to the home or outbuildings. Prune specimen trees, so that the lowest limbs are 6 feet above the ground to as high as a pole saw can reach, but remove no more than 50% of the live crown. Go to http://www.dnr.wa.gov/htdocs/rp/stewardship/bfs/WESTERN/pruning.html, for information on how to prune and illustrations of a proper pruning cut. Also, consider staggering the distance between the ground and the height of the lowest limbs to avoid the lollipop look. Space conifer trees such that the crowns are 30 feet distant from each other. Space shrubs 10 feet apart. Remove portions of trees that extend within 10' of the outlet of any chimney or stovepipe. Remove dead or dying wood from any tree adjacent to or overhanging any building. The roof is the most vulnerable part of a house so clear the roof and gutters of leaves, needles or other dead vegetative growth. Stack firewood and locate propane tanks 30 feet from any structure and clear flammable vegetation that is within 10 feet of them.

Thirty to One Hundred Feet (Zone 2): In this area, plants should be low growing and irrigated and trees well spaced and pruned. Native understory vegetation may be retained. The minimum distance between the shrub layer and the canopy should be, at least, 4 times the height of the shrub layer. For example, if the shrub layer is 2 feet tall then the lowest limbs of the overstory trees should be 10 feet above the ground. Maintain space between shrubs at least 2 times as wide as their diameter. Clusters of two to three trees should be spaced 30 feet apart and individual trees should be spaced 20 feet apart. Prune trees as in the highest priority area.

Develop adequate access for emergency vehicles. The diameter of a turnaround should be at least 3 times the length of the vehicle. It is very important to reduce the fire hazard around access routes, especially the roads over which emergency vehicles will travel. The driveway should be at least 12 feet wide with a vertical clearance of 15 feet and preferably a slope of less than 5%.

One Hundred to Two Hundred Feet (Zone 3): The goal in this area is to thin overcrowded native plants, eliminate ladder fuels and remove any debris that will fuel a fire. Reduce the density of overstory trees so that their canopies do not touch. Ladder fuels are vegetation that connects ground vegetation to tree crowns facilitating a ground fire becoming a crown fire; a crown fire moves much more quickly. Reducing ladder fuels may be accomplished by, in part, removing suppressed and intermediate trees and pruning trees as described in the highest priority area. Treat heavy accumulations of woody debris by, for example, chipping slash piles.

Signage is important, so emergency vehicles can find the home. Accessible water is also important; check with the fire district to make sure the design of the fire hydrant is compatible with the fittings a responder would use to connect to the hydrant. The Park Hill community had hydrants, but the fittings were not compatible with that of the response team’s equipment. In addition, the hydrants were made of PVC some of which burned. Bottom line, the hydrants were useless to the firefighters.

Try to schedule fuel reduction projects to begin after Sept 1 when trees are beginning to go into dormancy when beetles are not as attracted to fresh cuts and slash.

Fire hazard reduction activities will generate slash and may generate logs. Within 100’ of the structure, slash may be end hauled, chipped or piled and burned. Slash located 100’ or more from the structure may be lopped and scattered. In most circumstances, if the fire hazard reduction activity yields less than 5,000 board feet of timber per 12 month period that will be used by the landowner, a Forest Practice Application/ Notification is not needed. Otherwise, a Forest Practice Application/ Notification must be approved by the Washington Department of Natural Resources before operations begin.

In conclusion, the Upper County, in particular, is a high risk area because, in part, there is a history of nearby wildfires, the climate is dry with a dry season lasting more than 3 months, the terrain can be steep and fuel can be abundant. To minimize the risk of losing a home in the wildland/urban interface consider implementing Firewise guidelines.

Resources include the Kittitas County Conservation District, which can be contacted at 509-925-8585, the Washington State Department of Natural Resources, the Southeast Headquarters of which can be contacted at 509-925-8510 and local fire districts. For additional guidance about how to make a home and immediate area more fire safe, go to http://www.firewise.org/ and click on resources. If time permits, consider joining the local fire district, there will be no better way to learn about the emergency response infrastructure and how to protect a property from wildfire.

Solar Water Heating

2008-04-23T15:37:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

Why Solar Water Heating?
Whatever your reasons for wanting to reduce your energy consumption, you will want to know what to do first. Conservation yields the largest reduction in exchange for your precious time and money.

Conservation includes:

Use a clothesline instead of a dryer
Wear warm clothes and turn the thermostat down
Turn off lights not needed
Close and open windows and cover them to employ the sun and wind for heating and cooling
Take shorter showers
Wash clothes in cold water

Energy conservation also involves making the most of the energy you use by:

Replacing incandescent bulbs with compact fluorescents
Eliminating phantom loads
Upgrading appliances to energy star or better rated appliances
Tightening the building envelope (e.g. filling gaps)
Upgrading windows
Adding insulation
Installing a low flow shower head (e.g. 2.5 gpm showerhead)
Wrapping hot water heaters with insulation
Insulating hot water pipes running through unconditioned space
Lowering the thermostat on your hot water heater to 120°F
Replacing a top loader with a horizontal axis washing machine

After understanding the highest priority is energy conservation, the next biggest bang for your buck comes from directly heating your water with the sun. Installing a properly sized solar water heating system, can save 60% to 90% of the energy used to heat hot water per year, which makes up about 15% to 20% of a typical household’s energy outlay. Bringing up the rear, in terms of return on your investment is generating electricity from a grid connected photovoltaic (PV) system. Further, it makes sense to do everything you feasibly can to reduce your electricity use before you size your PV system.

Sizing
Alternative Energy Technology provides the following way to estimate the size of a residential system.

Determine Delta T (DT), which is the difference between the desired water temperature (usually 140° F for residential) and groundwater supply temperature (for the Ellensburg area a rough estimate is 47°F), the difference is 93°F.
Determine the size of the storage reservoir by estimating 20 gallons of hot water usage per day for the initial resident and 15 gallons per day for each additional occupant. Consider maximum potential occupancy and round figures up for available tank sizes. The result for a family of 5 is 80 gallons. Note: Solar water storage tanks are available in 80 and 120 gallons. Solar water storage tanks are typically larger and better insulated than average hot water tanks, and generally they have four ports instead of two. However, an average home hot water tank can be retrofitted to work as a solar water storage tank.
Multiply DT by the weight of water in pounds per gallon (8.34#/gallon) by the solar water storage tank size (in gallons) to determine desired Btu output. The calculation is 93*8.34*80=62,050 Btu per day needed
Estimate that an AET flat plate collector will produce 1,000 Btu per day per square foot, actually slightly less for the Northwest.
Size accordingly. Two 4’x8’ collectors offer 64 sq. ft. of area, and will therefore produce roughly 64,000 Btu per day.

Tom Lane, author of the book Solar Hot Water Systems Lessons Learned 1977 to Today provides a rule of thumb for sizing. He suggests first estimating the size of the storage reservoir by estimating 20 gallons for the first two people and 15 gallons for each additional person. If the estimated water use exceeds 80 gallons, use a 120 gallon tank. Then base the collector area on the actual tank size chosen. East of the Cascades, 1.5 to 1.75 gallons of water storage to 1 square foot of collector area may be an appropriate ratio. For example, a family of 5 requires 85 gallons, next size up to the next largest available tank size, which is 120 gallons, then divide 120 by 1.5 because there should be 1.5 times more storage capacity than square feet of collector area. The result is 80 square feet of collector area, which can be provided by two 4’ by 10’ flat plate collectors.

Siting and Orienting
Similar siting and orientation considerations apply whether you are installing collectors to heat water or whether you are installing collectors to produce power. The University of Oregon’s Solar Radiation Monitoring Laboratory provides a paper entitled “Evaluating a Site’s Solar Potential”, for evaluating a site for PV collectors, at http://solardat.uoregon.edu/download/Papers/Evaluating_a_Site_Solar_Potential.pdf
However, if you have a south facing surface, with plenty of room, that is not encumbered by shading and is close to your point of use, then you don’t need to do much evaluation. If your site is partially shaded, I suggest using the Energy Trust Shade Effect Evaluation Form for a 45.68 degree latitude sun chart made for Pendleton, OR available at http://www.energytrust.org/TA/solar/charts/pendleton.html. From what I am able to surmise it is the most applicable available sun chart for the Ellensburg area. On this page, you will need to select both azimuth and tilt. For your information, the optimal orientation for year round performance for PV collectors in Pendleton, OR is 35 degree tilt and 177 degree azimuth. Go to:
http://www.energytrust.org/TA/solar/charts/How_to_use.html for instructions on how use the Energy Trust Shade Effect Evaluation Form.

For example, our house only offers one small south facing roof close to our primary hot water heater and it is shaded sometimes by several evergreen blue spruce trees and a deciduous birch tree. Using a Shade Effect Evaluation Form, we determined the current and future shading is less than 10%. If shading is less than 25% then the site is worth further consideration.

Keep in mind; shading does not preclude the effectiveness of a solar water heating system. Obstacles on the horizon lower than 10° will have a negligible effect. According to Tom Lane, in the summer shading before 8am and after 4pm and in the winter shading before 9am and after 3pm will have almost no effect. He suggests that the site should be unshaded for at least four hours between 8:30am and 4pm.

The performance of a solar water heating system is also a function of the tilt of the collectors. According to Tom Lane, a tilt of 10° more than the latitude will maximize collection during the winter months, which is important because cold winter air temperatures drop collector efficiency and the water to be heated (especially from wells) is often colder in the winter. The latitude of Ellensburg is 47°, so the recommended tilt is 57°. The recommended tilt for a PV array (35°east of the Cascades and 30°west of the Cascades), to maximize year-round performance, is different. The reason is timing, you don’t care when, during the year, your PV array produces the most electricity because it is connected to the grid and you draw your power from the grid. On the other hand, a solar water heating system is independent, so you care very much when the days are short and cold that the performance of your collectors are maximized.

Note: The latitude of Ellensburg is 47.00° North and the longitude is 120.55° West. The elevation is between 1520’ and 1755’.

Note: To get local weather data for the City of Ellensburg, go to the Bonneville Environmental Foundation website (http://www.b-e-f.org/), click on Renewable Energy Programs scroll down to Community Renewable Energy Projects and click on Ellensburg Community Solar Project (Ellensburg, WA).

Type of System
According to Tom Lane, “only two types of active systems can survive in climates that experience freezes every year and/or have extremely hard scaling or acidic water: closed-loop drainback systems and closed-loop anti-freeze systems with well thought out heat exchange… systems...” More specifically, his favorite system is a double-pumped drainback system with a heat exchanger in the drainback reservoir. The main components of this system are the flat plate collectors, the drainback tank with internal heat exchanger, solar water storage tank, differential controller, high head AC pump to pump the water from the drainback tank to the collectors and a low head AC pump to circulate the water between the drainback tank and the solar water storage tank. The benefits of this type of system are: they are relatively simple, offer reliable freeze protection, and if a pump should fail it does not damage the collector or component parts because there is no water in the collectors. Further, a drainback system is more efficient than a pressurized glycol antifreeze system because water is a more efficient heat exchange fluid than glycol. And drainback systems last longer than pressurized glycol antifreeze systems because the glycol in a pressurized system can break down at high stagnation temperatures shortening the collector absorber plate life and requiring higher maintenance. The main limiting factor of this type of system is the installation must be right. The pipes must be sloped so that the collectors and pipes to the collectors will adequately drainback into the drainback reservoir. This system can be viewed at http://store.altenergystore.com/mmsolar/others/Drainback_DX_System_Schematic.pdf.

If you want to compare thermal collectors, the performance of different flat plate collectors and evacuated tubes is listed in the February and March 2008 issue of Home Power magazine, “SHW buyer’s guide”. Tom Lane also compares evacuated tubes to flat plate collectors on page 2a of his book.

Note: A concern we had at our house was that because we shower in the evenings, we will not be getting as much benefit from the system because the water heated by the sun in the day will be replaced by cold water that will then need to be heated by electricity. However, this is no longer a concern. We learned that water in the tank is stratified and because the bottom element of the hot water heater is disconnected, it will not heat the cold water in the bottom of the tank. The water at the top of the tank will still be hot because we will likely only use a portion of the hot water to take our showers in the evenings. The only time the upper element would turn on is if we used all the hot water accumulated from the collectors and the cold water from the well moved to the top of the tank.

Note: If you do laundry and run the dishwasher during the day when the collectors are heating water, you will get more benefit from the system.

Payback
The following scenario is provided as an example to show how quickly it will take a system to pay for itself (payback).

An existing electric hot water heater uses 5,846 kWh/year and the current cost of electricity is .075/kWh, when you multiply the two together you get $438/year. It is estimated that you can save 75% of the energy used to heat domestic hot water per family per year by installing a solar water heating system. Therefore $329/year is the savings that can be expected by installing a solar water heating system. The total cost of the solar water heating system is $5,747, after deducting the $2,000 federal personal tax credit. Therefore, it will take 17 years for the system to pay for itself, and given that the system is estimated to last a minimum of 30 years, the sun will be heating 75% of your water for free for 13 years.

Incentives
At this time, the only incentive available to Kittitas County homeowners who install a solar water heating system is a 30% of the cost of the system federal personal tax credit (see http://www.dsireusa.org/library/includes/incentive2.cfm?Incentive_Code=US37F&State=federal&currentpageid=1&ee=1&re=1), and it is set to expire on 12/31/2016. To view state incentives for renewables and efficiency go to the Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency at http://www.dsireusa.org/library/includes/map2.cfm?CurrentPageID=1&State=WA&RE=1&EE=1

Permits
Kittitas County provided this response when I requested a permit for our project: “At this time, Kittitas County does not regulate, permit, or otherwise oversee the use, installation, or maintenance of solar water heating systems (with the exception of new construction plumbing). Therefore, the system that you propose does not require a permit through our office.”

Credit
The majority of this article was gleaned from the book Solar Hot Water Systems Lessons Learned 1977 to Today by Tom Lane. In addition, portions of this article were gleaned from the article in Mother Earth News entitled “Simple Energy Saving Strategies” by Dan Chiras, from communication with Doug Livingston and Michael Hackleman of the Renewable Energy Hour on KZYX and Z, from the article in Mother Earth News entitled “Go Solar for Free Hot Water” by Bob Ramlow, from communication with an employee at the Alternative Energy Store, from communication with Frank Vignola of the Solar Radiation Monitoring Laboratory and from the Seattle City Light webpage on water heating conservation at http://www.ci.seattle.wa.us/light/conserve/resident/cv5_wh0.htm#efficience#efficience.

Resources
The Alternative Energy StoreTel: 877-878-4060 or 978-562-5858
http://www.AltEnergyStore.com/
http://store.altenergystore.com/mmsolar/others/Drainback_DX_System_Schematic.pdf
http://store.altenergystore.com/mmsolar/others/Strut_Calculator.xls
http://store.altenergystore.com/Solar-Water-Heating/Collectors-Mounts-and-System-Components/AET-Individual-Collectors/4X8-Msc-Series-Crystal-Clear-Collector/p177/
http://store.altenergystore.com/Solar-Water-Heating/Collectors-Mounts-and-System-Components/AET-Individual-Collectors/Aet-Racks-Mounts/Standard-Mount-for-Msc-Series/p180/

Alternative Energy Technologies
Jacksonville, FL 32254
800-874-2190 or 904-781-8306
http://www.aetsolar.com/

Bonneville Environmental Foundation
http://www.b-e-f.org/
local weather data for Ellensburg

Bright Way (E web)
541-484-1125 or 541-344-6311
http://www.eweb.org/home/energy/solar/index.htm
Solar water heating program in Eugene, OR

Brooks Solar, Inc.
Randy Brooks
Chelan, WA 98816
509-682-9646
info@brookssolar.com
http://www.brookssolar.com/
Installer. Distributor of AET solar water heating systems.

Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency
To view current federal and state incentives for renewables and efficiency, go to the Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency at http://www.dsireusa.org/

Dynamic Fasteners
Kansas City, MO 64133
800-821-5448
http://www.dynamicfastener.com/
$10.95 per S-5 U clamp. Can be used to attach collectors onto standing seam metal roofs without making penetrations.

Energy Conservation Services of North Florida, Inc.
Tom Lane
Gainesville, FL 32608
352-377-8866
tom@ecs-solar.com
http://www.ecs-solar.com/
Author of Solar Hot Water Systems Lessons Learned 1977 to Today, a very valuable resource for people serious about delving into solar hot water heating systems.

Energy Trust of Oregon
Go to http://www.energytrust.org/TA/solar/charts/pendleton.html for an Energy Trust Shade Effect Evaluation Form for a 45.68 degree latitude sun chart made for Pendleton, OR which is, from what I was able to surmise, the most applicable available sun chart available for the Ellensburg area.
Go to http://www.energytrust.org/TA/solar/charts/How_to_use.html for instructions on how use the Energy Trust Shade Effect Evaluation Form.

Seattle City Light webpage on Water Heating Conservation
http://www.ci.seattle.wa.us/light/conserve/resident/cv5_wh0.htm#efficience#efficience

University of Oregon, Solar Radiation Monitoring Laboratory
Contact: Frank Vignola (fev@uoregon.edu)
Eugene, OR 97403
541-346-4745
To create your own sun chart go to: http://solardat.uoregon.edu/SunChartProgram.html
or to learn about sun charts go to: http://solardat.uoregon.edu/AboutSunCharts.html
For solar radiation data go to: http://solardat.uoregon.edu/

Fire Hazard Reduction

2007-06-28T13:54:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

Reintroducing fire is not an option for many rural forest landowners, in large part, because of the unmitigated fuel load that has been allowed to build-up for the past 75 years. Treating this fuel load starts at the highest priority site, your home, with the most intense treatment. The balance of the property can be organized into concentric circles, with your home as the center, each warranting a lower priority and a less intense treatment.

The highest priority area is within 30' of your home. In this area, assuming you own the property, maintain a fire-break by removing and clearing away all flammable vegetation or other combustible growth. This will be tempered by your desire to landscape, so the key is to place or maintain single specimen trees, ornamental shrubbery or similar plants in your yard such that they do not form a means of rapidly transmitting a fire from the native growth to your home or outbuildings. Prune the lower branches of specimen trees as high as a pole saw can reach or within a minimum of 6 feet of the ground. Space trees and shrubs 10 feet apart. Choose landscaping that is fire resistant. Remove portions of trees that extend within 10' of the outlet of any chimney or stovepipe. Remove dead or dying wood from any tree adjacent to or overhanging any building. The roof is the most vulnerable part of your house; maintain the roof and gutters free of leaves, needles or other dead vegetative growth. Stack firewood and locate propane tanks 30 feet from any structure and clear flammable vegetation that is within 10 feet. Don't forget it is very important to reduce the fire hazard around your access routes especially the roads over which emergency vehicles will travel.

The second highest priority area is between 30 and 100 feet. In this area, maintain fire protection by removing all brush, flammable vegetation or combustible growth, which includes cutting grass exceeding 18 inches in height. Grazing, mowing or raking grass to 4" or less changes the nature of the fuel from ladder to ground, which is good. Treat specimen trees as in the highest priority area.

The third highest priority area is between 100' and 400' and can be narrower depending on native vegetation and slope. Of particular importance is the downhill distance and direction of high winds. You are most susceptible to fire if you live on a ridge with a steep slope that drops away from your house in the direction from which high winds blow. The goal in this area is to thin overcrowded native plants, eliminate ladder fuels and remove any dead plants that will fuel fire. Eliminating ladder fuels means creating a break in the continuity of vegetation from the ground to the canopy of trees.

The fourth highest priority area is the balance of the property, or the matrix, in which I suggest practicing good forestry which is multifaceted but may include the following timber marking criteria. Although there are a hundred things to consider before marking a tree, the core criteria to improve stand structure, in descending order of priority, are:
1. Remove damaged, dying, or diseased trees. Generally, trees which may die prior to the next harvest. However, some dying trees may be retained to become snags, which are important to wildlife. This is a “sanitation” strategy.
2. Remove suppressed and intermediate crown class trees. These are trees that neither are presently contributing growth to the stand, nor are they expected to do so prior to the next harvest. This is a "thinning from below” strategy.
3. Remove selected larger trees that improve spacing for the higher quality trees, which will be retained. This is a “spacing improvement” strategy.

Fire hazard reduction activities will generate slash and may generate logs. Within 100’ of the structure, slash may be end hauled, chipped or piled and burned. Slash located 100’ or more from the structure may be lopped and scattered. In most circumstances, if the fire hazard reduction activity yields less than 5,000 board feet of timber per 12 month period that you plan to personally use, a Forest Practice Application/ Notification is not needed. Otherwise, a Forest Practice Application/ Notification must be approved by the Washington Department of Natural Resources before operations begin.

Resources at your disposal include the Kittitas County Conservation District, which can be contacted at 509-925-8585, the Washington State Department of Natural Resources, the Southeast Headquarters of which can be contacted at 509-925-8510 and your local fire districts. For additional guidance about how to make your home and immediate area more fire safe, go to http://www.firewise.org/ and click on resources. If you have time, consider joining your local fire district, there will be no better way to for you to learn about the emergency response infrastructure and what you can do to better protect your property from fire.

Factors That Have Shaped Today's Forests

2006-11-19T13:48:00.000-08:00

By Thembi Borras

Past management has shaped the forests we see today, just as current forest management will shape the forests, future generations will see. The history of forest management has been driven by many factors. More than a hundred years ago, forests were considered by many white settlers as an obstacle and cleared for homesteads and to increase the area in which livestock could graze. After World War II, the demand for housing spurred widespread timber harvesting. Decades later, when I came of age in the early 1990's, deteriorating forest conditions had galvanized a movement. Much of the disgust associated with the deteriorating forest conditions was directed at the large corporation's desirous of maximizing short term profit, but prior to the mid 1970's, tax regulation was also to blame.

According to one old-time forester, one of the most severe pressures on forestland owners, prior to 1970, was the ad valorem tax where the whole stand was taxed at 2% real current money each year. Properties throughout the State were essentially clear cut to reduce the tax basis.

The ad valorem tax law provoked property owners to harvest trees to reduce their property taxes, which undermined the integrity of the timber base of California. Given this unintended consequence, the ad valorem tax on standing timber was replaced with a yield tax on felled timber, which remains in effect today. The 1976 Timber Yield Tax Law is imposed only when a timber owner harvests timber. It also, encourages the continued use of timberlands for the production of trees for timber products, and provides restrictions on the use of timberland to the production of timber products and compatible uses.

A portion of this production was gleaned from the November 2005 Timber and Timberland Values Manual, which can be viewed at http://www.boe.ca.gov/proptaxes/pdf/timbermanualfinal.pdf

Buying Wood from Well Managed Forests

2006-11-12T13:38:00.000-08:00

By Thembi Borras

You don't have to be a landowner, forester, or logger to influence forest management, as a consumer what you buy or don't buy is just as important. Every 2"X4", fence post and sheet of plywood comes from somewhere. When we built our home we specified wood from well managed forests or reclaimed wood, plywood glued with formaldehyde-free glue, fasteners made in the US, low VOC water based surfactants and high quality appliances that are energy efficient. Despite my knowing something about wood, the learning curve was steep and finding a retail outlet close to home that had the product in stock was not typical.

How do you know the wood you buy is from a well managed forest? I can tell you what we did. We cut all of the redwood we used from our land and had it milled on the property into 2"X6" decking and fascias, 2"X12" stringers for the outdoor stairway and boards and battens for the siding. In total, we processed one 38"diameter redwood and eight more ranging in size from 18" to 28". We bought a logging truck load of Douglas-fir logs from a local well managed forest, which we had delivered to a local mill from which our beam stock, headers, and some rafter and joist stock were milled. The balance of the Douglas-fir lumber we purchased was Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certified, from a retail lumberyard out of Monterey and Blue Lake. From the Monterey outlet, we also bought all of our construction grade and sturdifloor plywood, which was also FSC certified. We purchased our 2"X6" tongue and groove Douglas-fir flooring reclaimed from the ceiling and wall of an Arcata mill from a retail yard in Arcata. We bought the pine trees we had milled into tongue and groove 1"X8" ceiling material from a local working forest. We bought tanoak lumber that we finished into trim, windowsills and cabinet faces from a local Company that had harvested it from their land, locally. Finally, we bought the FSC certified hardwood plywood we used for cabinet carcasses and some built-in furniture from a large home improvement chain.

Minimizing the distance the material we used in our home traveled and living near and with the consequences and benefits of our consumption seemed right to us. However, logistics and connections may not allow you to get as close to the source. In which case, we found a level of comfort in buying FSC certified wood. Wood from FSC certified sources is evaluated by a third party initially, then again every five years according to 10 Principles and 57 Criteria that address legal issues, indigenous rights, labor rights, multiple benefits, and environmental impacts surrounding forest management and annually according to a subset of those criteria. Certifying the source is done either by certifying the Forest Manager or on a property by property basis. On the manufacturing end, the mill or plant, in order for it to use the FSC label must keep the wood from the FSC certified source separate. This is called Chain of Custody certification. To view the criteria used in our region go to http://www.fscus.org/, click on standards and policies and click on Pacific Coast Standards. To help you find the retail outlet closest to you that sells FSC certified wood go to the same website and click on product search, click on Metafore International Database , select the product, specify FSC certification, select the country and go.

The Mendocino County Fire Safe Council Needs Your Help

2006-10-29T13:29:00.000-08:00

By Thembi Borras

Fall is here and many of you are switching gears preparing for the winter ahead. However, despite the cooler weather, we are not beyond the fire season. In fact, this is the worst time of year for fire because the vegetation has been drying out since the spring and until we get a good soaking, we are not out of the woods. Memorable fires that started in the latter part of October include the Oakland Hills Fire of October 20, 1991, in which 25 people died and almost 3,000 homes were burned and the Southern California Firestorm of 2003, which began on October 25, in which 22 people died and 4,000 homes were burned.

In January 2004, three months after the Southern California Firestorm, 90 Mendocino County residents gathered to express their concerns about wildfire. Attendees waved both hands and money in the air to support founding a countywide Fire Safe Council.

Nearly three years old, the Mendocino County Fire Safe Council is now a recognized, effective, and efficient fire safety organization ready to tackle the projects laid out in the recently completed countywide Community Wildfire Protection Plan (CWPP), which can be viewed on the web at www.fire.ca.gov/FireEmergencyResponse/FirePlan/pdf/Mendocino.pdf. But because expected funds were diverted elsewhere they lack the financial resources to implement those projects sooner than later. Projects awaiting funds include (1) the development of local chipper programs; (2) wildfire education, including for children, new residents, and absentee landowners and (3) improved address signs because every year lives and property are lost when emergency responders can't find the locations.

The Allen-Heath Memorial Foundation, a charitable family foundation, has pledged $20,000 for the Fire Safe Council's projects in 2007. The foundation is challenging local residents and businesses to match that amount.

Approximately 70% of County residents live in the wildland/urban interface, areas that are at very high risk of wildfires. The task of educating the County’s residents and protecting its 3,500 square miles will take your help. To lend your support, send your donation to POB 1488, Ukiah, CA 95482. If you'd like to become involved in local fire safety activities, contact the council at 462-3662 or firesafe@pacific.net.

Measuring Growth and Age of Second-growth Coast Redwood

2006-10-15T13:21:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

A while ago I was told the outrageous story of a man who cut down the oldest tree to the remove the increment borer he had gotten stuck attempting to determine it's age. It was a bristlecone pine tree in Southern California that was approximated to be 4,000 years old. An increment borer is a long cylindrical hollow steel tube with a drill on one end and a handle on the other. An extractor as long as the tube is used to remove the core. Foresters use increment borers to measure a trees total age and/ or radial increment, a means to ascertain volume growth. Total age is used to recreate stand management history, history and pattern of natural disturbance and with tree height determine site productivity. To measure total age, the increment borer must be long enough to reach the center of the tree. I carry a 12" increment borer, which is comfortable and adequate for measuring the increment of the last ten years and with it, I can also get total age on a tree less than 18" in diameter at breast height.

A tree grows by laying a cone of xylem, within the bark, each year atop the previous years cone of xylem. When viewed in cross section these rings are easily distinguishable by the growth ring boundary, which is where the previous years small, thick walled cells of the latewood meet next years large, thin walled cells of the earlywood. So it is logical to think when the rings of a tree core taken at the base of the tree from bark to center are counted that the result will be the age of the tree.

However, in a paper recently published in the Canadian Journal of Forest Research, authors Kristen Waring and Kevin O'Hara caution drawing conclusions about a trees age from increment cores of second-growth coast redwood due to discontinuous or missing rings. A total of 157 cross sections were analyzed from 22 trees to reach several conclusions including, 40% of the time the rings counted in a core of a codominant second-growth redwood will be less than the trees actual age. For a suppressed tree this number climbs to 85%. This error can be minimized, but not eliminated, by modifying collection methods, which include taking the core on the outside of a sprout clump where growth rings are usually larger. How many rings are missing in a core? According to Dr. Kevin O'Hara, in his experience, more than a few, but this number is more difficult to quantify. Ultimately the concern is that, "growth and yield estimates based on tree cores will overestimate growth, because ages or time intervals are underestimated."

A portion of this production was gleaned from the paper entitled, "Estimating relative error in growth ring analyses of second-growth coast redwood", written by Kristen Waring and Kevin O'Hara.

Forestry and Logging

2006-10-08T12:49:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

Forestry and logging go hand in hand. Forestry ultimately comes down to cutting and growing trees, the forester usually has a vision of what a forest in the future will look like and outlines steps to reach it. Without the logger, the vision would not become a reality.

After the forester has finished marking the trees, infrastructure and sensitive areas, the logging starts with the timber faller. The timber faller is responsible for falling the tree and limbing and bucking it into preferred lengths. On a good day all the trees go exactly where they are aimed, there is minimal breakage, the leave stand is not damaged and no one gets hurt.

Once the trees are on the ground and made into logs, logs are picked up by grapples, large ice tong like devices, on the back of cats, skidders or on a helicopter line. Or more commonly, where the skill of a choker setter is employed, the bell end of a cable, called a choker, is wrapped around one end of the log. Then the eye end of the choker is attached to a hook on the skidder, cat, carriage or helicopter. The operators of these machines then navigate skid trails, cable corridors or the air to bring the turn of logs to the log landing. The type of skidding equipment used is, in part, a function of skidding distance, steepness of slope, density of logs, lay of the land, accessibility and location of sensitive resources, such as watercourses.

At the landing, landing men unhook the turn from the machine. Depending on the size of the operation the same person may also be the knot bumper who cuts any remaining limbs off the logs. A loader then loads enough logs onto the truck to make a load, determined by weight. The landing is connected to the truck road by which logging trucks travel to the highway and to the mills, where they are unloaded and the cycle begins again.

Because soil, sun and water enable the leave trees and new trees that are planted or naturally regenerate in the openings created by the disturbance to grow, it makes sense to protect the leave stand, leave nutrients on site, minimize the movement of soil and slow, disperse and collect water. All of which can be enhanced or diminished by the skill of both the forester and the logger.

Controls of Invasive Plants

2006-09-17T12:38:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

Preventing the spread of invasive plants is easier said than done given the vast expanses of invasive plants with which we are faced. Harding grass, which grows much taller than the native grasses it replaced increases the fire danger in many of the steep grasslands in Rancho Navarro where I live. Each year I notice more and more brooms and star thistle along our roadways. According to an article recently published in the May 2006 issue of the Mendocino County Farm Bureau's publication medusa head and barbed goat grass have become increasingly problematic to wildlife and livestock by reducing native populations of desirable feed and giant reed, also known as Arundo, and Himalayan blackberry have been charged with clogging local waterways.

Faced with a small backyard population of invasive plants well timed manual control can be effective. However, addressing large populations is a challenge because treatments may require long term commitments from stakeholders, can be expensive and can in themselves adversely impact the environment. The trick is for land managers to decide which control method is most effective, while being the least damaging to the ecosystem. Controls being used include public education, manual and mechanical, grazing, prescribed fire, biocontrol, herbicides and Integrated Pest Management (IPM) which incorporates a combination of these controls.

Manual techniques which include cutting, pulling or grubbing, which means pulling out all the roots, are very labor intensive. The advantage is that people can be trained to discriminate between the native plants and invasives. Mechanical techniques include mowing and mastication and can be cost-effective but are limited to gentle terrain and like grazing may cause unacceptable levels of ground disturbance and compaction. Also, machines and animals may not be able to discriminate between the invasive plants being controlled and the native plants being retained. Fire is also being used to control invasive plant species most often as a facet of some integrated pest management approaches. If the invasive plant species being targeted produces a prolific amount of seed, timing these controls to prevent annual seed production will maximize control efforts. In biocontrol, a natural enemy such as a parasite, predator or disease organism is introduced into the environment of the invasive plant or, if already present, is encouraged to multiply and become more effective in reducing the number of invasive plants. However, some biocontrol programs have resulted in significant, irreversible harm to untargeted species and to ecological processes and must be used with caution informed by the lifecycles and complex interactions of targeted and nontargeted species. Finally, although chemical control, which involves the use of an herbicide to reduce invasive plant populations, is controversial, Peter Warner, environmental scientist for the California Department of Parks and Recreation, considers "herbicides to be one of many essential tools in reducing the spread of invasive plants". The Nature Conservancy provides a checklist to be used when considering the use of herbicides entitled, To Spray or Not To Spray? and is contained in the Weed Control Methods Handbook, which is an excellent resource that covers in depth each of the control methods. It can be downloaded from the website http://tncweeds.ucdavis.edu/handbook.html .

You can get an Invasive Plants brochure at the Navarro River Resource Center, the number for which is 895-3230. You can also visit the Mendocino Coast Cooperative Weed Management Area website at www.mcwma.org and see how you can get involved locally or visit the website of the California Invasive Plant Council at cal-ipc.org.

A portion of this production was gleaned from The Nature Conservancy Weeds website at tncweeds.ucdavis.edu and communication with Peter Warner of the California Department of Parks and Recreation and Tara Athan, botanist for the Mendocino Coast Cooperative Weed Management Area.

Invasive Plants

2006-09-10T12:24:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

The pleasures of the tasty fruit that Himalayan blackberry produces, the sweet tropical fragrance that the blooms of French and Scot's broom emit and the rich yellow flowers of gorse that add color to the Caspar Headlands is clouded by these plants being invasives. An invasive species is a non-native that propagates itself in the wild without human intervention and whose introduction may cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health. Other familiar invasive plant species that occur locally include pampas grass, yellow star thistle, English ivy, periwinkle, black locust, iceplant, giant reed, Harding grass and tansy ragweed.

Ironically, invasive plants have a home. In the ecosystems where they are native, competition, biological controls (e.g. herbivores or disease-causing microorganisms) and environmental conditions (e.g. climate), keep them well behaved. Hearty traits such as producing large quantities of seed or plant parts (e.g. rhizomes that support asexual reproduction), producing seed that remains viable for decades, thriving in disturbed soil or in over-grazed pasture, growing aggressive root systems that spread long distances and producing reproductive parts that are suited for transport by effective vectors including water, wind, birds, animals and humans are possessed by some invasive plant species. However, many non-invasive plant species possess these same hearty attributes. So it stands to reason there is more to the story of why invasive plants are successful outside their native ecosystems. Peter Warner, environmental scientist for the California Department of Parks and Recreation, adds human commerce and the rapid, deliberate and incidental movement of both entire plants and propagules (e.g. seeds, rhizomes, etc.) and human accelerated disturbance combine with these traits to increase the spread of invasives. Mild, moist climates are also especially susceptible to invasion by greater numbers of invasive species. Peter states further, in general, the spread of species to new regions and ecosystems is not novel in a long-term historical context, but the rate of introduction and spread have far outpaced the evolutionary resiliency of native species and their ecosystems to withstand this external pressure.

Concern over invasive plants is rising because they can cause decline of endangered or threatened species; invasive plants compete directly with native species for moisture, sunlight, nutrients and space; overall plant diversity can be decreased; invasive plants degrade wildlife habitat; diminish productivity on agricultural lands; degrade water quality; increase soil erosion and increase fire hazard.

So what do we do? The lowest hanging fruit is prevention. Ways you can prevent the spread of invasives, include choosing non-invasive plant species for your gardens and landscaping, disposing of yard waste properly, not picking and transporting the flowers of invasives, cleaning your boots or vehicle if they are carrying invasive plant material and use feed for livestock and mulch for erosion control free of invasive plant seed. You can also support programs to eradicate invasive plants or habitat restoration programs by donating time and/or money, and request that governments do the same.

To get more information about invasive plants ask for the invasive plants brochure at the Navarro River Resource Center at 895-3230. To see how you can get involved locally, visit the Mendocino Coast Cooperative Weed Management Area website at http://www.mcwma.org/. To learn what is happening state-wide, visit the website of the California Invasive Plant Council at cal-ipc.org.

A portion of this production was gleaned from the United States Forest Service website on Invasives Plants at http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/invasives/index.shtml and communication with Peter Warner of the California Department of Parks and Recreation and Tara Athan, botanist for the Mendocino Coast Cooperative Weed Management Area.

Fire Hazard Reduction

2006-08-20T12:14:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

A reader writes "I am the owner of a 20 acre property in the Anderson Valley which has about seventeen acres of mixed second generation redwood, Doug fir, tanoak, bay, broadleaf maple, madrone, etc. My question is in regard to mitigating the effects of fire suppression. … what is the best way for me to reduce the fuel load in my woods while increasing the health of the ecosystem? I have no interest in a prescribed burn and I don't see that as a viable option. What are your thoughts?"

Reintroducing fire is not an option for many rural forest landowners, in large part, because of the unmitigated fuel load that has been allowed to build-up for the past 75 years. Treating this fuel load starts at the highest priority site, your home, with the most intense treatment. The balance of the property can be organized into concentric circles, with your home as the center, each warranting a lower priority and a less intense treatment.

The highest priority area is within 30' of your home. In this area, assuming you own the property, maintain a fire-break by removing and clearing away all flammable vegetation or other combustible growth. This will be tempered by your desire to landscape, so the key is to place or maintain single specimen trees, ornamental shrubbery or similar plants in your yard such that they do not form a means of rapidly transmitting a fire from the native growth to your home or outbuildings. Prune the lower branches of specimen trees as high as a pole saw can reach or within a minimum of 6 feet of the ground. Space trees and shrubs 10 feet apart. Choose landscaping that is fire resistant. Remove portions of trees that extend within 10' of the outlet of any chimney or stovepipe. Remove dead or dying wood from any tree adjacent to or overhanging any building. The roof is the most vulnerable part of your house, maintain the roof and gutters free of leaves needles or other dead vegetative growth. Stack firewood and locate propane tanks 30 feet from any structure and clear flammable vegetation that is within 10 feet. Don't forget it is very important to reduce the fire hazard around your access routes especially the roads over which emergency vehicles will travel.

The second highest priority area is between 30 and 100 feet. In this area, maintain fire protection by removing all brush, flammable vegetation or combustible growth, which includes cutting grass exceeding 18 inches in height. Grazing, mowing or raking grass to 4" or less changes the nature of the fuel from ladder to ground, which is good. Treat specimen trees as in the highest priority area.

The third highest priority area is between 100' and 400' and can be narrower depending on native vegetation and slope. Of particular importance is the downhill distance and direction of high winds. You are most susceptible to fire if you live on a ridge with a steep slope that drops away from your house in the direction from which high winds blow. The goal in this area is to thin overcrowded native plants, eliminate ladder fuels and remove any dead plants that will fuel fire. Eliminating ladder fuels means creating a break in the continuity of vegetation from the ground to the canopy of trees.

The fourth highest priority area is the balance of the property or the matrix in which I would suggest practicing good forestry which is multifaceted but may include the marking criteria described in the entry dated 10-16-05 entitled Marking to Improve Stand Structure. These activities will generate logs, which either can be used personally by the landowner or can be sold upon approval of a timber harvest document, which for small acreages may be cost prohibitive. An Emergency Notice for Fuel Hazard Reduction may be cost effective and if the project meets the criteria and is approved would allow the landowner to the sell logs from fire hazard reduction activities within the vicinity of their home.

If you decide to pile and burn the debris created from fire hazard reduction activities, see entry dated 10-30-05 entitled Safe Debris Burning. Other ways to treat the debris include chipping or if the area is more than 100' feet from a structure, lopping and scattering.

Resources at your disposal include the Mendocino County Fire Safe Council, which can be contacted at firesafe@pacific.net or 462-3662, the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, the Headquarters of which can be contacted at 459-7414 and your local fire departments. For additional guidance about how to make your home and immediate area more fire safe, go to www.firewise.org and click on resources. If you have time, consider joining your local fire department, there will be no better way to for you to learn about the emergency response infrastructure and what you can do to better protect your property from fire.

Resources Deployment Criteria for a Wildland Fire

2006-08-13T11:55:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

The California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CDF) responds to over 5,600 wildland fires each year. CDF is responsible for protecting over 31 million acres of California’s privately owned wildlands. The heart of CDF’s emergency response capability is a force of nearly 4,000 full-time fire professionals, foresters, and administrative employees; 1,400 seasonal firefighters; 5,600 local government volunteer firefighters; 2,600 volunteers in fire prevention; and 4,300 inmates and wards that currently comprise 196 fire crews. CDF operates a number of facilities including 806 fire stations. CDF staffs 13 air attack bases and nine helitack bases. Further CDF operates over 1,095 fire engines; 215 rescue squads; 63 paramedic units; 12 hazmat units; 38 aerial ladder trucks; 58 bulldozers; 5 mobile communication centers; and 11 mobile kitchen units. From the air CDF operates 23 1,200-gallon airtankers, 11 Super Huey helicopters, and 13 airtactical planes. This represents only a portion of the resources available in the multiagency effort to fight fire in California each year.

Given fire fighting entities know little more than whether it is going to be a good fire year or a bad fire year at the beginning of the season, have you ever wondered how this body of resources is deployed once a fire has been detected? Deployment of resources is a function of fire danger, weather, access, terrain, protecting lives, firefighter availability, fire suppression standards, fuel loading, protecting structures, support personnel availability, wildland-urban interface, publicity and notoriety, recreational and esthetic values and equipment availability. One important criteria which influences deployment of resources is fire danger.

Fire danger is expressed as a rating that integrates the effects of existing and potential fire danger factors into a series of numeric “components” and “index’s”, including ignition component, spread component, energy release component and burning index that indicate fire spread and intensity. A fire danger rating assists the fire manager in being able to determine the potential, over large geographical areas, for fires to ignite, spread, and require suppression action.

Imagine you had 100 matches and you individually lit each one and flipped it into a pile of pine needles, if 75 actually started a fire, the value of the ignition component, expressed as a percentage, would be 75%.

The spread component is the forward rate of spread expressed in feet per minute. A spread component of 25 means that the forward rate of spread is 25 feet/per minute.

The energy release component is related to the available energy, measured in Btu/ square foot within the flaming front at the head of a fire. The available energy is directly related to the amount of fuel, type of fuel and fuel moisture content.

The burning index is related to how hard the fire is to contain. The burning index value is flame length X 10.

A portion of this production was gleaned from the fact sheets on the CDF website at www.fire.ca.gov , The United States Forest Service publication entitled Policy Implications of Large Fire Management available at www.fs.fed.us/fire/management/Large_Fire_Mgt.pdf and the Fire Danger Rating System described on the website www.sierrafront.net/indexcomponents.htm.

Where there's Smoke, there's Fire

2006-07-30T11:49:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

Smoke is often the only tangible reminder that wildland fires are burning and lately in some areas of the County, the smoke has been palpable. Two new fires preceded my return trip from Sacramento on Monday, July 31st. I witnessed smoke billowing above Mount Konocti from a fire burning near Kelseyville. More impressive were the visible flames and the heat felt in the cab of my pickup as I drove past the human caused Walker fire, which burnt 104 acres just south of Willits. Much larger fires continue to burn in California, one of which in Mendocino County is the lightening caused Hunter fire located 19 miles southeast of Covelo in the Black Butte River watershed. The Hunter fire has burnt 4,931 acres and has been 15% contained by 554 personnel.

I was able to glean from data provided by the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection for 2006 that the sector starting the highest numbers of fires in California was equipment use such as mowers, but it was unclear to me which fire causing sector resulted in the greatest number of acres burnt. However, it is clear that humans can play a significant role is causing or preventing the ignition of wildfires. Go to www.nifc.gov/fireinfo/prevention for tips on how to prevent wildfires. Most human caused wildfires can be prevented by using common sense.

The cost of fire suppression per acre varies widely depending on several factors including type and amount of vegetation, terrain, accessibility, home density and weather conditions but a rule of thumb is that for every $1 spent on prevention $10 is saved in suppression, which does not include lives, animals, homes and natural resources.

If you live in an urban wildland interface where your home and nature intersect, chances are, there are steps that you have not yet taken to reduce fire hazard. Fortunately, there are numerous resources at your disposal. They include the Mendocino County Fire Safe Council whose mission is to educate and motivate our county’s residents about wildfire preparedness. The Mendocino Fire Safe Council encourages you to contact them. They will provide fire safety educational materials, including delivering to groups presentations about wildfire issues. They can be contacted at firesafe@pacific.net or 462-3662. For additional guidance about how to make your home and immediate area more fire safe, go to www.firewise.org and click on resources. The California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, the Headquarters of which can be contacted at 459-7414, and your local fire departments are also excellent resources, both of whom were instrumental in informing a more fire safe driveway, turnaround, fire hydrant and water system design on our property in Navarro. To keep up to date on the fires burning on federal lands in the State go to the Incident website at www.inciweb.org.

What's in a soil name?

2006-07-23T11:39:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

You may be familiar with local forest soil names such as Bearwallow, Kibesillah, Ornbaun and/or Zeni. Soil names, also referred to as series names, are commonly used to connect to useful information such as soil descriptions that include potential annual production, permeability, erodability, depth and color, which may inform management decisions. Series names are easy to remember, pronounce and recognize. However, dig a little deeper and you learn behind each series name is a soil order, suborder, great group, subgroup and family, which when combined form a long and complex taxonomic classification that is brimming with information, such as particle size, temperature regime, moisture regime, characteristic soil horizons and origin.

For example, the Zeni series is a fine-loamy, mixed, isomesic Ultic Haplustalf. From this, I can glean that it is in the Alfisol order, an order that in part may be characterized by clay from upper horizons leaching to lower horizons where the clay accumulates in films. The moisture regime is ustic, which means moisture is limited, but is present at a time when conditions are suitable for plant growth. The temperature regime, is isomesic, which means the annual soil temperature is between 46 degrees F and 59 degrees F, measured at approximately 20" below the surface. Finally, I can glean something about the particle size; fine-loamy may be translated to clay loam. A loam is a mixture of sand, silt and clay that exhibits the properties of each in approximately equal proportions.

There are twelve orders of soils, Entisols are young soils with little or no morphological development. Inceptisols, Alfisols, and Ultisols are in ascending order in the development continuum, all of which locally can support timber. Mollisols are soils with a dark horizon rich in organic matter and can often be found supporting grasslands. Aridisols are desert soils. Vertisols are truly amazing as they invert themselves through the shrinking and swelling of the clays contained within them in response to soil moisture. Oxisols are highly weathered soils in subtropical or tropical environments; you can experience Oxisols in Florida. Andisols are soils formed in volcanic ash and are prevalent in the Andes. Spodosols are acid forest soils with a subsurface accumulation of metal-humus complexes. In our area, the pygmy forest grows from a Spodosol. Histosols are organic soils, peats are an example. Finally Gelisols are soils with a permafrost within 2 meters of the surface.

A portion of this production was gleaned from Keys to Soil Taxonomy published by the USDA and the Natural Resources Conservation Service, The Nature and Properties of Soils by Nyle Brady, the University of Idaho Soil Science Division website at http://soils.ag.uidaho.edu/soilorders/orders.htm and The Soil Survey Report for the western part of Mendocino County, available at http://www.ca.nrcs.usda.gov/mlra02/wmendo.html .

Mycorrhiza

2006-07-09T11:31:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

When we walk in the forest we see the trees, the plants and perhaps mushrooms, mammals, reptiles, amphibians and birds, but beneath our feet is an ecosystem just as active and vibrant as the one we see above ground. Within this ecosystem, is a vast network of mycorrhiza, which literally means "fungus root". Mycorrhiza is the naturally occurring, non-pathogenic prolonged symbiotic association between fungi and the roots of vascular plants, in particular trees.

Mycorrhizae are separated into two groups, those that penetrate the cells of the root cortex, called endomycorrhizae and those that don't, called ectomycorrhizae. Douglas-fir can be a host to 2,000 different species of ectomycorrhizal fungi over the course of its life. Individual species of mycorrhizal fungi exist and behave as a function of a number of variables including soil fertility, aeration, soil temperature, pH, the presence of certain micro organisms, the presence of a specific host and the presence of specific mycorrhizal fungi mycelia or spores.

Mycorrhizae obtain simple carbohydrates from the host tree. In return, mycorrhizae improve nutrient availability and uptake by, in part, increasing the surface area placing more of the root in contact with soil nutrients. Carbonic acid, the result of fungal respiration and the solvent properties of fungal metabolic byproducts assist in the biochemical degradation of primary minerals in infertile soils. Pine seedlings, inoculated with mycorrhizal fungi, grown in prairie soil, aside from showing an increase in nitrogen concentration, demonstrated a two-fold increase in potassium and a three-fold increase in phosphorus. In addition, the exudates of the mycorrhizal fungus can stimulate growth. Moreover, mycorrhizae can serve as a biologic deterrent to pathogenic root infection by, in part, utilizing carbohydrates and other chemicals attractive to pathogens, by the fungal sheath acting as a physical barrier and by secreting antibodies which can inhibit or destroy pathogens.

Most healthy forest trees, conifers and broad-leaved trees alike, appear to have mycorrhizae. Moreover, their importance is greater felt in certain ecosystems. For example, the poor soils in the Amazon rain forest characterized by thin layers of litter and humus, below which are poor water logged clays, are able to support such a lush environment because the mycorrhizae efficiently recycle nutrients in the fallen leaf litter which would otherwise be leached away in heavy rains.

Management Practices as they relate to Soil Productivity

2006-07-02T11:15:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

The proverb, an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure, is worth repeating in reference to soil conservation. Preventing soil loss, organic matter loss and soil compaction is far more cost effective than building soil. That being said, minimizing rather than preventing these impacts is more realistic in the industries that supply the goods, which occupy a soil medium, which society demands, including oil, water, food and forest products. In the context of forestry, minimizing soil impacts is a function of the type of silviculture, harvesting, site preparation, slash management and road management implemented.

Paul Zinke, Professor of Forestry at UC Berkeley ranked silvicultural systems and harvesting methods by their degree of soil disturbance. Of the six silvicultural systems, which include single tree selection, group selection, shelterwood, seed tree, clearcutting and biomass harvesting, single tree selection, with 10% of the area affected and 5% of the trees removed, was ranked lowest. Clearcutting, with 90+% of the area affected, was ranked highest and clearcutting where the crowns as well as the logs were removed had a greater impact on soil fertility because the foliage, twigs and branches contain the highest above ground nutrients of the tree. Of the harvesting methods evaluated, feller-bunching and tractor or skidder logging produced a higher degree of soil disturbance than cable and horse logging which produced a higher degree of soil disturbance than helicopter logging.

The type of silviculture, harvesting, site preparation, slash management and road management interact with each other, the topography, e.g. steepness of slope and aspect, and the characteristics of the soil, e.g. shallow, bare, infertile and/ or saturated, to further minimize or maximize soil impacts. For instance, implementing single tree selection will not generate as much slash as a clearcut and therefore may not require the practices typically used to prepare a site after a clearcut. To facilitate planting the next generation of trees after a clearcut piling and burning, broadcast burning, terracing and ripping may be employed, which can lead to topsoil loss, erosion and volatilization of nutrients.

No matter the silvicultural system or the harvesting method, the creation of slash is inevitable. Slash management includes leaving slash in place, burning, lopping and scattering, chipping, packing slash on skid roads or removing slash from the site altogether. Generally, leaving slash in place is best because the nutrient cycle and soil fertility is impacted less.

Roads can significantly contribute to soil loss, organic matter loss and compaction. Minimizing roads, using roads in the season for which they were designed, draining roads well and frequently onto stable surfaces, diversion proofing crossings, and designing crossings for the large episodic event are road management practices to minimize impacts on soil. Moreover, in tractor yarding, restricting equipment to well-located portions of the existing skid road network and prescribing equipment operators to move no more soil than is necessary minimizes soil impacts.

A portion of this production was gleaned from Sustaining Site Productivity on Forestlands; A User's Guide to Good Soil Management published by the University of California.

Soil Productivity

2006-06-25T10:57:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

In a workshop I recently attended on biointensive farming, I was challenged to harvest vegetables as a byproduct of growing soil. With the exception of the ocean and the atmosphere, soil is the medium in which everything we consume grows. Trees depend on the 25% or more of their biomass found in the soil, which physically functions to store water, circulate air and water and support tree roots.

Despite the importance of soil, soil loss, soil compaction and organic matter loss continue to diminish soil productivity in forests. Forest site productivity, which is the capacity of the land to grow trees, is, in part, a function of soil productivity. Forest site productivity can be measured in annual production in bf/acre/year and is an important standard used by foresters to plan, describe and compare forestlands. As forest site productivity declines so does annual production rates and the length of time between harvests may become longer.

In New Zealand, a 20 percent drop in site productivity was revealed after 1" of topsoil was removed. In my own experience I have walked areas in Central Mendocino County that obviously suffer from topsoil loss and compaction, the magnitude of which being frequently connected to the extent of the legacy skid trail network and drainage associated with it as evidenced by the light colored subsoil, stunted trees and gullies.

Soil loss reduces the supply of nutrients and water. Soil compaction retards root growth and the circulation of air and water. And, organic matter loss accelerates erosion and may decrease water retention, structure, porosity, and resistance to compaction. These conditions are not easily reversed given the amount of time it takes for easily crumbled, humus and nutrient enriched topsoil to develop. In the context of agriculture, it takes 500 years to build 1" of topsoil which is significantly longer than the time that it is taking to lose 1" of topsoil, only 28 years in some cases.

For the most part, we have inherited the soil productivity we use to prosper today. To insure that future generations are able to flourish we must reverse the depletion trend and begin to accumulate soil wealth. In the context of forestry, practices exist to minimize the loss of soil productivity, however there are no economically viable practices to restore soil, soil structure and organic matter once it has been lost. My challenge and that of future generations will not be growing trees, agricultural crops or raising cattle but will be growing the soil on which they depend.

A portion of this production was gleaned from Sustaining Site Productivity on Forestlands; A User's Guide to Good Soil Management published by the University of California and the Proceedings from the Soil, Food and People Conference held in 2000 at UC Davis.

Double Standard

2006-06-11T10:54:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

I suppose if we could do right by the air, soil and water we share, we wouldn't need laws to protect the environment. However, our actions have compromised the environment resulting in a stack of well-intentioned legislation that has created a morass of regulation. In forestry, the tangle of paperwork, permits, fees and multiple Agency review can be time consuming, costly and frustrating.

However, it doesn't have to be that way. Project proponents could be rewarded with, at a minimum, reduced or waived fees and reduced or waived paperwork if the type of forest management proposed steps beyond the minimum standards to improve forest related values. There is inequity in the present system; the hoops appear when the proponent offers timber harvest. Conversely, the hoops disappear when the project proponent offers restoration. Even though, the timber harvest project may incorporate restoration. For example, I have worked with the California Department of Fish and Game (DFG) in three of their many programs, timber harvest review, fish habitat restoration and permitting. If the undertaking is a DFG funded fish habitat restoration project the fees and much of the paperwork associated with the permitting is absorbed by DFG. On the other hand, if the project is a timber harvest, fees and paperwork are required from the project proponent. Ironically, the specific treatments, such as sizing and designing stream crossings for 100-year storm events and improving road drainage by draining roads well and frequently onto stable surfaces, may be exactly the same.

Agencies may not be equipped to accommodate shades of gray but with the exception of the small number of projects on either side of the spectrum that are either black or white the rest are shades of gray. In fact, timber harvest can pay for restoration and if the conclusion is reached that the timber harvest project in the method and level of harvest and the proposed sediment saving treatments will yield the same or better results as a restoration project of equivalent size then it should be afforded similar reprieves if for no other reason than to provide incentive for this behavior.

Madrone Renewal and Reporting Animal, Insect and Disease Forest Damage

2006-06-04T10:44:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

We can all breath a collective sigh of relief, the madrones, for the most part, are back and more glorious than ever. Madrones are susceptible to foliar leaf pathogens, the symptoms of which can range from small necrotic leaf spots to the entire leaf dying such as we have seen evolve over the course of the last year. In January of 2006 I reported that the late spring rains in 2005 had created a prime environment, high moisture during a warmer time of the year, for the growth of foliar pathogens including the native foliar pathogen causing the malady. At that time, I thought the consequence would likely be slowed growth, but the madrone would recover.

As time and the spring equinox passed and the madrones showed no signs of improvement, I became less certain that they would make a full recovery and thought it likely that at the very least there would be lasting effects such as part of the tree dying. Finally, spring brought renewal; flawless leaves began emerging three weeks ago and now govern the dead leaves that subtend them.

There are several resources available to address your concerns about tree damage caused by animals, insects and diseases. I recommend the annual reports published by the California Forest Pest Council entitled "California Forest Pest Conditions". This report summarizes the forest pest activity in California per year by providing information submitted by the aerial survey program, entomologists, pathologists, botanists and other forest health specialists. To view this report go to www.fire.ca.gov, click on Resource Management and Forestry, click on Pest Management under Category Links and click on California Forest Pest Conditions Report.

The California Forest Pest Council also sponsors the Cooperative Forest Pest Detection Survey to which they encourage federal, state, and private land managers and individuals to contribute by submitting pest injury reports and samples. For instructions on collecting and mailing samples and to fill out a Forest Pest Detection Report, go to www.fire.ca.gov, click on Resource Management and Forestry, click on Pest Management under Category Links and click on Forest Pest Detection Report Form.

Bishop Pine Health at the Mendocino Coast Botanical Gardens

2006-05-28T10:07:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

An ever present reason for the decline of a tree is old age. The age after which trees decline varies with species and site quality. In forestry terms, some identify this age as being synonymous with the culmination of mean annual increment (CMAI), which is defined as the age at which the stand volume production rate is maximized. Although we like to call it the "Golden Years" for ourselves foresters offer the term "senescence" for this stage in the life of a tree.

What got me thinking about senescence was my visit in April to the Mendocino Coast Botanical Gardens to see the bishop pine, which was prompted by one of the volunteers. He wanted to have more information for patrons when they asked about the health of the bishop pine, which he said they often do.

Of the 47 acres that comprise the Mendocino Coast Botanical Gardens, several acres support a relatively even aged overstory of bishop pine, some of which have died and been topped or removed for safety. Several bishop pines display dead brown branches within the living crown, otherwise known as flagging and many of the crowns appear to be thinning.

Typically, the number of years a tree has lived, alone, will not cause flagging or death. Instead age yields a weakened state that invites a myriad of biological agents and when combined with harsh environmental conditions and animal damage may lead to the demise of a tree.

Too much water can also tip the balance. For example, shore pine on the west side of Highway 1 just north of the Albion River Inn started dying several years ago. According to Jack Marshall, Forest Pathologist at the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, the mortality agents are the pine engraver beetle and sour sap beetle. The shore pines follow a watercourse, which is likely receiving increased water due to a change in the water drainage pattern.

If the bishop pine at the Mendocino Coast Botanical Gardens will run their course in the next few decades the question becomes how can the next generation be encouraged without the benefit of fire, which bishop pine needs to regenerate. Bishop pine seeds are stored in closed cones until the cones are opened during fire or very hot conditions when large numbers of seeds are released to inhabit the disturbed ground.

A portion of this production was gleaned from the website: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/pine.

Poison Oak

2006-05-14T10:02:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

It is a test of your mettle as a forester to get up in the middle of the night to call owls, to weather winter storms checking road drainage and stream crossings, to wipe blue paint off your face when you mistakenly stand downwind, to be dirty, to run property line down 100% slopes, to crawl or throw yourself at old growth huckleberry and to run cruise lines through poison oak. These experiences are badges of merit. However, having chewed the field challenges of the "dirt" forester, I could do without the poison oak. Oh I suppose I could also do without the 100% slopes, but everything else I embrace and is balanced by the perfect spring days spent on gentle terrain in the woods.

When people find out I am the poster child for poison oak sensitivity, their first question is how can you be a forester here in poison oak country. A rigid multi step routine, supported by a type A personality and obsessive compulsive disorder generally keeps me poison oak free unless it is above shoulder height.

The culprit is a chemical called urushiol found in the sap of poison oak. Ironically, human bodies, which defend against urushiol, contract the aggravating symptoms, whereas the bodies of the 3% of humans that are "immune" do not defend against the chemical. According to Terry Kratwurst in her article on this subject in the June/July issue of Mother Earth News: "Within 15 minutes after you get the substance on you, it's carried into the dermis (the inner skin layer) and bonds with skin protein to form an antigen. The first time this occurs, nothing obvious happens- no one is "born sensitive" to urushiol….But sooner or later most people's immune system develops some degree of distinct biological distaste for the urushiol spawned antigen. At that point, whenever the antigen's presence is detected…T-cells rush to the hated invader and attack, releasing chemicals that literally destroy the surrounding skin…better known as poison oak dermatitis."

The most frustrating aspect of contracting symptoms is questioning the source. Since there is a lag of as long as 4 days from the time you encounter the chemical to the time symptoms manifest you can imagine the speculation. Was it the dog I petted three days ago? A perfect ending to this story would be a cure, but after having tried pharmaceuticals and homeopathic remedies there is no magic cure and unless I want to move to Nevada the only State entirely free of species containing urushiol I will live with it, buck up and stop complaining.

Wildlife Rescue

2006-05-07T09:54:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

Have you ever been frantic, not sure what to do, having encountered an animal you thought injured, abandoned or in need of attention? I have, last year I was introduced to a bird in a downed nest. This circumstance effected me to seek assistance from the wildlife rescue community. Before you engage this limited resource community there is information that will better inform your decision to walk away, care for the species yourself or bring it to a rescue facility.

Locally, all wildlife is born in the spring, in particular the month of May. May is the month for babies. You may think a fawn needs attention, because you conceive it has been abandoned, not seeing its mother nearby. In fact the mother, on purpose, remains distant from the fawn to protect it as she is scented and the fawn is not. If you encounter a fawn, don't pick it up and keep your dogs on a leash, during this time of year, to prevent an unnecessary dog/ fawn encounter.

If you find a baby bird, owl or hawk out of the nest it is important to know the parents will likely continue to care for it, especially owls. If you are able to reach the nest safely, put the bird back in its nest. It is a myth that the parents will abandon their young if they detect human scent, in fact birds have a poor sense of smell. If a nest is down, you can put it in an open cardboard box and nail the box to the tree then put the young in the nest. Stunned birds found near windows may need nothing more than a cardboard box in a safe location in which to recover.

If the animal is obviously injured, evidenced by a drooping wing or blood, local veterinarians may treat wildlife at no charge. At a minimum, veterinarians will have referral numbers for wildlife rescue facilities. If possible, call your veterinarian or one of the rescue facilities prior to removal as they may be able to guide your decision and advise in proper transport procedures. Sonoma Wildlife, a mammal rescue facility can be reached at 707-544-6713. Bird Rescue of Santa Rosa, a bird rescue facility, can be reached at 707-523-2473. Willits Wildlife Rehabilitation Team, a local non profit wildlife rescue facility, can be reached at 707-459-9539 and donations for the care of injured wildlife can be sent to POB 44, Willits, CA 95490.

The bulk of this production was gleaned from a phone conversation with Ronnie James of Woodlands Wildlife a small local rescue facility that receives all referrals through local veterinarians. Woodlands Wildlife, a non profit, will receive donations for the care of injured wildlife at POB 1336, Mendocino, CA 95460.

The story of Trillium ovatum

2006-04-30T09:47:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

Trillium ovatum is in bloom and the story of this species is worth sharing. Trillium ovatum can be found in moist coniferous forests and may be identified by an erect naked stem that supports 3 showy leaves in a single whorl subtending the equally showy 3 petal flower, the color of which begins white and ages to pink then purple. They are a long lived perennial, in fact you will not recognize them per this description until age 15.

In the first year the root radical develops, in the second year the cotyledon develops. One leaf emerges annually as the rhizome develops between ages 3 and 15. At age 15, 3 leaves emerge and the plant begins to flower. The rhizome of Trillium ovatum, also called a corm is a solid underground storage organ that accumulates annual scars that can be counted. Trillium ovatum as old as 72 years have been identified in our area, in the Eastern United States a closely related species of Trillium ovatum as old as 105 years has been identified.

The seed dispersal biology adds to this fascinating story. A mature plant produces seeds, to which a swollen oil rich body, called elaiosome, is attached, which attracts ants. Ants collect the seeds and transport it back to their underground nest, where they eat the elaiosome. The seed is ready to germinate having been cleaned and planted by the ants.

I was told this story in a presentation by Botanist Eric Jules during a Special Forest Products workshop in September of 1999. In the same presentation I also learned that after clearcutting, the survival of Trillium ovatum sharply declines, which it was suggested is, in part, due to the disruption of this cycle. It is thought the deer mice population increases. The deer mice eat the seed before the ants secure them.

A Proposal to Process Hardwoods at the Masonite Facility

2006-04-23T09:22:00.000-07:00

During the course of researching the subject of converting tanoak to energy, the efforts of developer Chris Stone were brought to my attention. I asked Chris to convey his proposal.

Chris Stone writes, "My efforts are focused on saving the Masonite site in Ukiah from being converted to a big box shopping center. Masonite in Ukiah once processed up to 500,000 tons of wood fiber annually. Reactivation of the facility to produce a fabric fiber called Lyocell, brand name Tencel, principally from tanoak would be a County wide boon. Hardwoods are preferred because they have significantly higher cellulose content as compared to softwoods. Lyocell production utilizes an amine to dissolve cellulose in a closed loop process, which has received environmental recognition in Europe. Lyocell is currently being produced in Mobile Alabama, Grimsby UK, and in China. Total annual world production is about 200,000 tons and is utilized in high value apparel as well as nonwoven products, medical wipes and hospital gowns. The fabric industry forecasts a worldwide demand of 700,000 tons by 2020.

How can a decommissioned facility in Ukiah California stay globally competitive? One part of the answer is the abundance of tanoak in Northern California and the ability at Masonite to directly convert wood fiber to Lyocell. All other major Lyocell production facilities worldwide rely upon the pulp market for their supply line. Single site conversion of wood fiber to Lyocell, based upon $60.00 per ton delivered price, achieves a 33% supply line advantage over pulp market rates. Couple this with the capital cost advantage the Masonite facility represents and you have a positive answer to the question of competitiveness.

If production achieved 500,000 tons annual wood fiber processing then about 500 new jobs would be created. Additionally, the Masonite boiler feed water could be supplied from the Ukiah wastewater facility. This would represent approximately 950 acre feet of wastewater consumption, one third of the wastewater being discharged into the Russian River annually.

A new process that converts lignin, the other major component of wood fiber, which in pulp production is not much more than a waste stream, to biodegradable polystyrene will soon see commercial development. Scientists working in this field project that within ten years lignin will also be a source for polyester materials. In the face of oil scarcity, it only seems prudent to preserve and utilize facilities that possess the capacity to convert wood fiber into the products that will be lost when oil runs out."

I continue to be intrigued by Chris Stone's proposal for several reasons, the foremost of which is having an outlet to which small diameter tanoak could be sold at a reasonable price.

To communicate directly with Chris, his email is seastone@starband.net.

Beyond Human Influence

2006-04-09T09:17:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

A road in which I have an interest recently became impassable due to a slide blocking it. In 2003, the same road had been upgraded to the tune of $35,000. The work encompassed reshaping (outsloping with rolling dips), upgrading wet crossings, improving drainage and installing rock in a few key locations. Soon after, I went out to walk the slide.

The story begins 600' upslope from the improved road in grassland. In the grassland, an unstable area is now clearly defined by a crack in the ground in the shape of a horseshoe that is 300' wide and 600' long. Approximately 4 acres of the hillside is moving, upon which clumps of redwood trees are now leaning. Near the upper margin of the unstable area is the headwaters of a swale, 15' by 30' of which became active within this much larger land feature. The watercourse that connects the swale to the fish bearing watercourse below became a high speed highway of liquefied soil. The watercourse passes through three culverts under three roads, a legacy logging road, a driveway and the improved road. The first culvert immediately plugged with a slug of sediment that could not be dug out. Fortunately the watercourse did not divert and stayed in the channel, the second culvert plugged but was subsequently cleared before it reached the third culvert that plugged with the liquefied soil. The bulk of the liquefied soil is now sitting on the improved road. Now as far as I could tell there was no direct human cause for this event. At least there was nothing obvious. There is a possibility that past road building activities or logging may have collapsed soil pipes or caused compaction that may have contributed to a change in drainage that in turn contributed to the activation of this feature.

The moral of this story is that although you may spend $35,000 dollars to prevent sediment from reaching the creek simultaneously improving the road, an occurrence beyond human influence can in the space of hours or minutes deliver as much sediment as you saved and block the road until further notice. However, there are questions you can answer when planning road placement to avoid inherent instability. Do you absolutely need the road? Can you gain access to your destination from the ridge, thereby having to cross fewer watercourses? Can you tie existing stable legacy road cuts together? Can you locate the road on gentle ground at a gentle gradient? Can the road be located in forest soils, which are typically more stable then grassland soils?

Planting Tree Seedlings

2006-04-02T09:03:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

For those of you still planning to plant tree seedlings, you probably know it is a little late in the season to be planting. The best time to plant tree seedlings in Mendocino County is at the beginning of the rainy season after 6" of rain has fallen. The idea is to plant tree seedlings as soon as the ground is wet enough to easily create a hole and at a time when the ground will remain consistently moist for several months while the seedling becomes established. Planting this late in the season may mean that in order for your seedlings to survive you will need to water them and or plant them in strategic locations so that they are protected from excessive sun and wind.

Once you have your seedlings, it is best to plant them right away or store them properly if you need to delay planting. In storage, you are trying to prevent the roots from drying out at the same time mold from forming, which requires a delicate balance of air circulation and moisture.

In addition to planting the seedling immediately, knowing how and where to plant will increase the chances that your seedling survives. Plant your seedling outside the drip line of existing trees, but opt for places that provide some protection from exposure. An excellent location is on the north side of a decaying log. Grass is a fierce competitor to seedlings, so if you plan to plant in grassland scarify an area down to bare mineral soil 12" to 24" in diameter, this buffer must be maintained until the tree is established. Although it is more important to pick the right spot, shoot for a distance of 8' to 12' between trees.

Make sure your hole is deep enough for the roots of the seedling to be fully extended. Then while holding the seedling fill the hole with dirt and tamp. Don't leave any air pockets near the roots. You can further increase the chance the tree will survive through maintenance, including removing competing brush and doing deep watering once every two weeks.

Go to http://www.fire.ca.gov/php/about_content/downloads/PlantingGuide2005.pdf for more information on planting. You can also go to http://www.fire.ca.gov/php/rsrc-mgt_statenurseries.php for information on purchasing seedlings from the State Nursery at Magalia.

A Snapshot in Time

2006-03-26T08:56:00.000-08:00

By Thembi Borras

It is a rare practice to measure every tree to assess the quality and quantity of the forest. Instead, a sample is taken, called a timber cruise. The intensity of a timber cruise and the data collected is a function of why it is being done, a smaller sample is usually taken for forest management decision making and a larger sample is usually taken to determine value for a sale or purchase. The intensity of the cruise often ranges from 5% to 20%.

For example, the Jones family owns 200 acres of homogenous forestland; from which most of the timber was removed in the 1950's and which they now want to put into active management. The landowner and forester agree a 10% cruise is appropriate for forest management decision making including preparation of a long term management plan. The forester uses 1/5 acre fixed radius plot sampling, twenty acres is the sample size which equates to 100 plots. The radius of a fifth acre circular plot or the distance from plot center to plot edge is 52.7' horizontal distance. All merchantable trees in each plot are measured for height and diameter. Additional data collected includes basal area (a measure of stand density), the length of the radial increment of the last 10 years (a means to ascertain growth rate), the number, height and diameter of snags and number of seedlings, saplings and poles. Back in the office the forester converts the field measurements and reports the results to the landowner. Following is a cross section of the results. The Jones Family Forest supports 15,000 bf/acre of which 10,000 bf/acre is redwood and 5,000 bf/acre is Douglas-fir, 50% of the volume is in trees with diameters 18"-24", the average growth rate is 4.5%, the conifer basal area is 175 square feet, the forest stand is well-stocked with young trees and the number of snags greater than 16" is one per acre.

The Jones family now has a snapshot in time quantifying and qualifying their forest stand. During the course of time they may have the property recruised. The data from which can be compared to this original baseline. Future cruises will also help them determine if they are meeting their management objectives.

A portion of this production was gleaned from the California Forestry
Handbook by T. F. Arvola, 1978.

Determining Tree and Log Volume

2006-03-19T08:48:00.000-08:00

By Thembi Borras

Given the tree diameter at breast height (dbh) and the tree height to a merchantable top, there are tools available to help you estimate the volume in a standing tree. Volume tables are one such tool. Volume tables are, in part, specific to species and log rule. Log rules are ways to estimate the number of boards a milled tree will yield. The log rule used regionally is Scribner Decimal C. Volume is most commonly reported in board feet for trees that will be made into lumber. A board foot is 12" wide by 12" long by 1" thick. These are familiar units to anyone who buys lumber.

The volume of a tree may be measured several times before it is made into lumber. When I mark a tree to be cut, I record the dbh and height in logs to a merchantable top. In the local species specific volume table developed by Peter Joos that I use, logs are defined as 16' long and the merchantable top diameter is defined as 6". For example, a 26" dbh redwood with (5) 16' logs to a 6" top is reported in the table to have 620 board feet. As a general rule, height to a 6" top is usually about 30' less than the total height, but can vary greatly depending on the form of the tree. This tally of tree volume helps the landowner, logger and forester plan.

The tree, once it has been cut and bucked into logs, may be measured again by the faller. Henceforth each log is considered individually. The volume of each log is determined by measuring the small end diameter inside the bark and the length of the log. Given these inputs a different volume table is used to estimate the board foot volume. For example, a log 24" in diameter and 20' long with trim has a gross volume of 500 board feet. After the log is skidded, loaded and trucked to the mill, people called scalers will make the same measurements, but will reduce the gross volume of the log by the defect that they identify in it. The resulting figure is called the net volume. Commonly, the landowner is paid by the mill based on the net volume scaled at the mill.

Measuring Tree Diameter and Height

2006-03-12T08:41:00.000-08:00

By Thembi Borras

Trees are in part valued on their volume. To determine the volume of a tree the diameter and the height of the tree must be measured.

A flexible measuring tape can be used to measure the diameter. The diameter of a tree is measured at breast height, which is defined as 4.5 feet above the ground on the uphill side of the tree. The circumference of the tree is what you will measure by wrapping the tape around it, making sure there are no kinks in the tape and the tape does not sag. To convert the circumference at breast height to the diameter at breast height (dbh), divide by 3.14. For example if the circumference is 82", dividing by 3.14 will yield a result of 26", therefore the dbh of the tree is 26".

A measuring tape and two sticks of equal length can be used to measure the height of a tree. Find the center point on one of the sticks, hold the other stick perpendicular to it, effectively making the letter "T". Step away from the tree until you can see the top and bottom. Put the base of the "T" between your eyes, then walk away or toward the tree until the top and bottom of the stick line up with the top and bottom of the tree. Make a mark on the ground, the distance between your mark and the tree is the total height of the tree, if you are on flat ground. If you are on sloped ground, the slope distance will need to be converted to horizontal distance.

These are exercises for interested persons that do not have the tools of the forestry trade available to them. Foresters use diameter tapes, biltmore sticks and relaskops to measure diameter and height, or their eye to discern diameter and height more efficiently.

Tanoak to Energy

2006-02-19T08:29:00.000-08:00

By Thembi Borras

Tanoak is a beautiful wood, we used it in our home for trim, baseboard and cabinet stock. Tanoak is hard and either clear boards or boards complex in character can be made from it. However, tanoak is a labor of love to process, minimizing the defect during drying being the trickiest part. Several attempts have been made to develop the infrastructure for processing tanoak into a viable product, foremost among them was Mendocino Redwood Company's attempt to make tanoak into tongue and groove flooring. Regardless of the many failed attempts to create a viable market for tanoak, landowners and forest managers continue to seek an economical means to balance the large amount of tanoak in certain landscapes with the desired conifer component.

Some forest managers use herbicides to gain this balance. Firewood operations are limited by the number of reputable firewood cutters, logistics, and that many small timers can't afford liability insurance. The best time to remove tanoak is when logging conifers, because the roads are open, the equipment is on site and the CDF plan under which you are operating is active. To do this however, you need some place to sell it and at this time, there is no viable market. Occasionally the chip market will pay enough per ton to justify hauling it to the closest pulp mill in Humboldt County, but this is usually at a net loss.

Recently, I was asked by a reader in Irmulco with a tanoak rich property, "How about conducting a poll to see how many folks would support the county pursuing a hardwood for biofuel project?".

One type of biofuel project could be a cogeneration plant that would burn wood to generate electricity. Another might be to convert biomass to biofuel. One advantage this market has over the furniture or flooring markets is the size and quality of the tree matters less, so there is less incentive to high grade the biggest and best trees from a managed forest. My guess is as much tanoak as conifer could be harvested in the County each year. If this were an adequate resource base, there are at least two inactive industrial sites previously used to process forest products that could serve as potential locations. Given that this topic has been penetrated to various depths over the last several decades, old-timers may already have answers to obvious questions like can it be done cleanly, is it cost-effective and is there public support? Given the high price of oil and interest in self-sufficiency, this may be a good time to once again consider this option for turning tanoak into energy.

Flood Recurrence Frequency of 12-30-05 Storm

2006-02-12T08:23:00.000-08:00

By Thembi Borras

On December 30th of 2005 rivers and streams rose and spilled over their banks and already saturated soil moved. Ken Montgomery, proprietor of the Anderson Valley Nursery, recorded 7.58" of rain fell between 9am on the 30th and 9am on the 31st and 27.46" fell during the month of December. According to Ken, December 2005 was the wettest December in at least 70 years, and the second wettest month in at least 70 years. Ken reports that even more stunning than the record setting monthly total is that the 27.46" fell in the last two weeks, in fact it was one of the driest Decembers until December 17th.

On the 31st, it was dry enough to get out and see what the high water left behind or had taken away. Silt and water were left behind in homes and structures that were flooded by the Russian and Navarro Rivers. Soil, trees, logs and lumber were taken by the River and deposited downstream. The North Fork Navarro River tried to take a nearby cabin; it lifted it off its post and pier foundation and carried it downstream as far as the electrical ground wire would allow.

A woman I met in the aftermath of her Oak Manor home having been flooded said the home had not flooded in the 30 years that she lived in the subdivision. Therefore, based on anecdotal evidence the flood flow had not been as high as on 12-30-05 in 30 years at the Oak Manor site.

Determining how frequently the flood flow associated with the 12-30-05 storm might be expected to happen is not simple. It is a function of the historical data available in a specific geographic area. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) gage on the mainstem Navarro, located 5.3 miles upstream from the mouth, has been in operation for the last 54 years providing discharge data. On the morning of 12-31-05, this gage recorded the peak discharge of 55,700 cubic feet per second, using this data in the Gumbel method the flood recurrence frequency was estimated to be 25 years. The Gumbel method is considered a quick and dirty way to estimate the flood recurrence frequency using peak annual discharges. The prediction becomes better the more years data is collected. The flood recurrence frequency of the 12-30-05 flood in watersheds in the Fort Bragg area was thought to be lower (e.g. 12 years) and in watersheds in Sonoma County thought to be much higher (e.g. 50 years).

A portion of this production was gleaned from communication with Dennis Slota, Hydrologist at the Mendocino County Water Agency.

Tree Pruning

2006-02-05T08:15:00.000-08:00

By Thembi Borras

The refreshing spring-like weather reminds me I need to prune my fruit trees. Whether you are pruning fruit trees for increased fruit production and structural integrity; ornamental and/or shade trees for health, safety and appearance; trees in a forest for fire hazard reduction, aesthetics and improved timber quality; or trees along roads for a fuel break or to dry out the road surface faster, pruning well will facilitate meeting these goals. Pruning fruit trees is not the subject of this production. Once a year when I endeavor to prune my fruit trees I reference the thin, small book How to Prune Fruit Trees by R. Sanford Martin. The following techniques and considerations embody proper pruning:

1. Make pruning cuts where two limbs intersect or where limbs intersect the main tree trunk.
2. Avoid "flush cuts" which remove the branch bark collar or "stub cuts" which leave branch stubs protruding.
3. When necessary, reduce the tree height of hardwoods by selectively removing upper branches. Tree removal and replacement with a smaller growing species may be preferable to tree topping which can be damaging.
4. For large limbs, make an undercut so that when the branch separates it doesn't strip off bark from the bole of the tree.
5. Use shears or a saw designed for pruning and keep them sharpened. Use a chain saw only for limbs too large for hand tools. Never use an axe. Use recommended safety equipment, such as eye protection, hard hat, gloves and sturdy footwear.
6. Where access and logistics allow, prune during the winter, which is the slower growing or dormant season when the sap is flowing less.
7. In the forest, all limbs can be removed up to a height of 18 feet from larger hardwood and conifer trees, but the highest cut will be limited by the reach of your equipment. This is a good height for aesthetic enhancement and fire hazard reduction and will improve timber quality in the first 16 feet. Although, pruning conifers can improve the quality of the first most valuable log, this added expense and time might not yield a better price at the mill. Smaller trees should be pruned in stages, retaining approximately 40 percent of the total height in live green branches after pruning.

Go to http://www.dnr.wa.gov/htdocs/rp/stewardship/bfs/WESTERN/pruning.html, from which this production was gleaned, to access this information and illustrations of proper pruning cuts.

Causes of Decline of Inland Douglas-fir

2006-01-29T07:57:00.000-08:00

By Thembi Borras

A reader from the Iron Peak area of Mendocino County asks why a number of good-size Douglas fir have died over the last five or so years?

Jack Marshall, Forest Pathologist at the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, corroborated the readers observations reporting an increase in the death of Douglas-fir in the vicinity of Willits north to Laytonville. However, the number of dead trees observed has been declining since its height in 2003. The flat-headed fir borer and the Douglas-fir engraver beetle are the likely mortality agents. The flat-headed fir borer can cause mortality in any sized Douglas-fir tree. The Douglas-fir engraver beetle can cause mortality in trees less than 10" in diameter. Weakened trees are most susceptible to intrusion by insects. Biologic pressures and environmental pressures can cause trees to become weak. Weak trees are destined to be outcompeted by their neighbors and relegated to a suppressed or intermediate crown position. Environmental pressures include drought, the effects of a disrupted fire cycle, soil compaction and increased exposure to the elements. Biologic pressures include disease agents. In this case, the Dermea canker causes dieback of limbs and tops which may invite the entrance of the Douglas-fir engraver beetle.

Another reader from the Blue Rock Creek area asks a series of related questions: Can the bark beetle that is killing the Douglas-fir be stopped? Should we let them continue since they are only taking out the "weak" trees? How should they be cut and removed without spreading the beetle?

Native pests will always be in the area, but you can be active in protecting the non-symptomatic population. The Douglas-fir engraver beetle, a bark beetle, and the flat-headed fir borer are native insects. Through early removal of the symptomatic tree, you can slow the population growth. Once cut, treat the slash by lopping and scattering, piling and burning or chipping. Debarking the logs is also effective in that the habitat where beetles breed and larvae feed is destroyed. If you cut an infected tree into firewood, tarping and sealing the piles of wood with clear plastic is an effective way to prevent the emergence of the beetle from the wood. Go to http://www.fire.ca.gov/ click on resource management, then pest management and finally Tree Notes #3 or go directly to http://ceres.ca.gov/foreststeward/pdf/treenote3.pdf for more information.

A portion of this production was gleaned from a conversation with Jack Marshall, Forest Pathologist at the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection. If you have a local disease or insect question for Jack Marshall, he can be reached at Howard Forest in Willits at 707-459-7448.

Jackson Demo State Forest Draft Environmental Impact Report Alternatives Evaluation

2006-01-22T07:39:00.000-08:00

By Thembi Borras

The Board of Forestry and Fire Protection has released a Draft Environmental Impact Report (DEIR) for the proposed management plan for JDSF and seeks public input. JDSF is 50,000 acres and is the largest of the eight Demonstration State Forests that the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CDF) operates. Since 2001, timber harvest on JDSF has been suspended due to legal action; the DEIR for the proposed management plan is intended to move the status of management of JDSF from inactive toward active.

I evaluated the seven alternatives proposed in the DEIR based on silviculture, growth and yield and the use of herbicides, which I believe are essential issues.

Note: Uneven-Aged management includes prescriptions such as single tree selection and group selection. Even-Aged management includes prescriptions such as clearcutting, seed tree and shelterwood. Annual allowable harvest is projected out a minimum of 10 years.

Alternative A (minimal management)
Uneven-Aged Management/ Even-Aged Management: No harvest, no site preparation, no thinning, no planting.
Annual Allowable Harvest: Not applicable.
Herbicide Use: Limited for road maintenance.

Alternative B (continue 1983 plan)
Uneven-Aged Management: Yes.
Even-Aged Management: Yes.
Annual Allowable Harvest: 36 million board feet (MMBF)/year (nearly equal to the present estimated growth).
Herbicide Use: Yes.

Alternative C1 (CDF May 2002 DFMP, preferred Alternative by CDF)
Uneven-Aged Management: Yes, allowed on approximately 24,000 acres.
Even-Aged Management: Yes, allowed on approximately 11,000 acres.
Annual Allowable Harvest: 31 MMBF/year.
Herbicide Use: Yes.

Alternative C2 (CDF November 2002 Plan)
Uneven-Aged Management: Yes, allowed on approximately 22,500 acres.
Even-Aged Management: Yes, allowed on approximately 10,000 acres.
Annual Allowable Harvest: 31 MMBF/year.
Herbicide Use: Yes.

Alternative D (Citizens Advisory Committee proposal)
Uneven-Aged Management: Yes.
Even-Aged Management: No clearcutting. Other prescriptions restricted to limited demonstration.
Annual Allowable Harvest: 25 MMBF/year.
Herbicide Use: Herbicides would not be allowed in site preparation or vegetation control. There would be a three-year moratorium on chemical use for control of invasive species.

Alternative E (Late Seral Forests)
Uneven-Aged Management: Yes.
Even-Aged Management: No.
Annual Allowable Harvest: 8 MMBF/year.
Herbicide Use: No.

Alternative F (Older Forests Emphasis)
Uneven-Aged Management: Yes.
Even-Aged Management: No.
Annual Allowable Harvest: 19 MMBF/year.
Herbicide Use: Use herbicides only if other approaches fail.

Alternative D (Citizens Advisory Committee proposal), in my opinion, appears to have the greatest chance of successfully balancing environmental values, economic viability and public support. If there is enough public buy-in, then perhaps further legal wrangling can be avoided. Alternative D also best fits my vision of public forest management because it is strong on building inventory, strong on selection prescriptions and does not suggest incorporating herbicide use as a customary part of forest management. Building inventory and improving stand structure are cornerstones of sustainable forestry, although selection prescriptions do not inherently imply improved stand structure, this is only inherent in good decisions made on the ground regarding which trees will be cut and which will be left. Selection prescriptions done well are opportunities to take value from the forest and improve the transportation infrastructure, at the same time keeping pre harvest habitat the same as post harvest habitat, improving aesthetics by maintaining a continuous forest canopy and encouraging fewer large stems and minimizing adverse watershed effects through a low level of canopy removal.

Late Spring Rains Result in an Increase in Foliar Pathogens

2006-01-08T21:16:00.000-08:00

By Thembi Borras

In the past several months, the madrone tree outside my window has become increasingly unhealthy looking. More than 75% of the surface area on 50% of the leaves have turned brown.

So I called Jack Marshall at the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection and asked him, why? Late spring rains in 2005 created a prime environment, high moisture during a warmer time of the year, for the growth of foliar pathogens including the native foliar pathogen causing the brown spots on the madrone outside my window. The consequence will likely be slowed growth, given that the photosynthetic area of the leaves has been obstructed, but the madrone will not likely die and will slowly recover.

A little more than a month ago, Mr. Marshall started observing the end of branches on interior live oak trees were dead or dying. The cause is Discula quercina, a native branch canker fungus that kills branch tips and buds. Similar to the madrone foliar pathogen it was accelerated by the environmental conditions set forth by the late spring rains.

New Sudden Oak Death (SOD) occurrences may manifest as a result of the late spring rains. Phytophthora ramorum, a water mold fungus that many believe to be nonnative, causes Sudden Oak Death in some of its hosts and occurs as a foliar pathogen in other hosts, such as California bay laurel. Bay laurels are thought to be very important in spreading the disease as the fungus readily produces spores on moist bay leaves. The spores of Phytophthora ramorum are then ready for transport, by mechanisms such as wind and water, to new hosts. According to Brock Dolman of the Occidental Arts and Ecology Center, "This past summer SOD finally really hit Sonoma County due to our late wet spring…" To get a thorough grasp on SOD and its movement go to the California Oak Mortality Task Force web site at www.suddenoakdeath.org.

The complexity of the environment that surrounds us never ceases to amaze me.

A portion of this production was gleaned from the book Diseases of Tree and Shrubs by Sinclair, Lyon and Johnson and a conversation with Jack Marshall, Forest Pathologist at the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection. If you have a local disease or insect question for Jack Marshall, he can be reached at Howard Forest in Willits at 707-459-7448.

Is your road up to the big, fast water challenge?

2006-01-01T21:06:00.000-08:00

By Thembi Borras

The winter storms are delivering big, fast water causing some stream crossings to fail, road rock to be lost, sink holes and road failures. Well designed roads and stream crossings take into account large storm events. Moreover, when well designed roads and stream crossings are properly constructed and installed, they are better able to resist the big, fast and infrequent water as we have been having. The best time to determine if your road is holding up to the big, fast water challenge is during the storm. If it is not safe, you can often project, where the high water level was, based on debris, mudlines and waterlines, after the storm.

Indicators that your road is not adequately drained include waving farewell to your road rock, the capacity of your ditch relief culverts and inside ditches are being exceeded and rills are forming in your road bed.

An indicator that your culverted stream crossing is not adequately designed is the capacity of the culvert is being exceeded. Plugging is often evidence that a culvert is undersized. When a stream crossing plugs it can spell bad news. In the winter of 1995/1996 an undersized culvert plugged on our private dirt road. The diverted water traveled 125 yards where it outleted carrying 30 cubic yards of the roadbed to the creek, facilitated by the well formed berm on the outside edge of the road.

At the same time your are evaluating your road during a storm you can do effective short-term maintenance, with a shovel or a hoe, that will protect your investment. Dig ditches to get the water off the road as quickly as possible and deliver it to a stable location. Remove any blockages from culvert inlets. Clear your inside ditches of debris but keep growing things in the ditch, to slow the water and meter sediment, unless you need the capacity. Long term fixes include sizing your stream crossings for 100 year storm events and where appropriate can include replacing culverts with rock armored fill crossings, installing more frequent cross drainage and reshaping roads to have outslope.

In the spring, remember the big fast water of 12-30-05 and ask yourself if your road could be improved, it may not be cheap, but it could save you money and inconvenience in the end. Remember the goals of road improvement are to reduce the chance of sediment delivery because of episodic events, reduce chronic delivery of sediment and reduce maintenance.

The Handbook for Forest and Ranch Roads by Pacific Watershed Associates will aid you in your road management decision making and is available through the Mendocino County Resource Conservation District (707-468-9223) and the Navarro River Resource Center (707-895-3230).

Why widespread tree mortality is not prevalent in coastal forests?

2005-12-25T20:54:00.000-08:00

By Thembi Borras

During the last six months, since I have been producing articles, the most popular interest of readers has been causes and management of tree decline and mortality. Ironically, I left college believing that coastal forests were little afflicted by diseases and insects and that all of the serious problems were found in the Sierran and southern mountain ranges. While I continue to learn the numerous insects and diseases that cause decline and mortality of trees in coastal forests, coastal forests do not suffer the widespread tree mortality that shock certain communities, like Lake Tahoe and Lake Arrowhead. Why isn't widespread tree mortality prevalent in coastal forests?

Firstly, insect outbreaks become epidemic, causing widespread tree mortality, more often than disease outbreaks and insect outbreaks are more prevalent in dry regions as compared to outbreaks of disease, which are more prevalent in moist regions. Some insect genera emit pheromones, a potent chemical that attract other insects that can result in a population explosion, whereas the rate of spread of diseases is regulated by its vectors, such as wind and water, and is comparatively slower. Generally, in our coastal forests, trees die individually or in relatively small groups, resulting in little impact at the landscape level.

Secondly, single species forests are more prevalent in the Sierras. Single species forests are more susceptible to widespread mortality because a different tree species that may not be susceptible to a host specific insect is not present to break up the progression of the outbreak.

Thirdly, pines are more prevalent in the Sierran and southern mountain ranges and certain tree species, such as pine, are more susceptible to insect infestation. In fact, some of the most damaging forest epidemics are in pine forests.

Another reason that I did not learn as much about the diseases and insects that cause tree decline and mortality in coastal forests is because less is known about them. There is a comprehensive and accessible body of work about Sierran insects and diseases because the large amount of publicly owned land and visible widespread tree mortality in the Sierras has been a recipe for money, research and lands on which to do that research.

A portion of this production was gleaned from a conversation with Jack Marshall, Forest Pathologist at the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection. If you have a local disease or insect question for Jack Marshall, he can be reached at Howard Forest in Willits at 707-459-7448.

Best Wood for Burning

2005-12-11T20:45:00.000-08:00

By Thembi Borras

What is the best tree species for firewood? The answer is a function of abundance, availability, splitability, presence or lack thereof of messy sap, density and energy content.

The most abundant hardwood in the managed timberland on which I work is tanoak. The most available species for a low price or free are the less dense hardwoods and conifers, in fact I have found it hard to give pine and willow away. The most splitable woods are species that tend to have straight grain. Others have entangled fibers and can be very difficult to split. Some wood splits easiest when green such as live oak, madrone and tanoak and some split much easier when dry and brittle, such as fir and some pines. Obviously the conifers have the messy sap, and are not preferred because of their sap. Many people believe that burning sap will lead to excessive accumulations of creosote. However, if the wood burning system is functioning properly, above normal levels of creosote should not accumulate. The easiest and best fire is built by using a mixture of both softwoods and hardwoods. Softwoods start burning easily, and the hardwoods provide for long burning and good "coaling" qualities.

All wood, regardless of species, has about the same energy content per pound. The different species vary only in density. The higher the density, the higher the energy content per cord. A cord is 4' high by 4' deep and is 8' long. Energy content is often measured in British Thermal Units (BTUs). The following are the approximate number of BTUs produced per cord burned of local species: willow 18, redwood and grand fir 19, big leaf maple 22, western hemlock 23, California bay, black walnut and Douglas-fir 25, tanoak, white oak and black oak 27, madrone 30 and live oak 35.

Most folks will say madrone is the best tree species for firewood, but I encourage you to consider other species, which may be more available, less expensive and may be burnt regardless, in slash piles or wildland fires, without the benefit of heating your home. Ultimately, it is more important to have wood that is cut and split to the right size and properly dried than it is to get the most dense wood available.

For more information, visit the website http://www.woodheat.org/ and http://www.consumerenergycenter.org/homeandwork/homes/inside/heatandcool/fireplaces.html, from which this production was gleaned.

A Well Designed Wood Burning System

2005-12-04T08:31:00.000-08:00

By Thembi Borras

A well-designed wood burning system embodies building a strong draft quickly, so a new fire is easy to start. When a fire is started, smoke should not spill into the room and excessive creosote should not accumulate. When a fire is not burning a cold draft should not come down the chimney. A well-designed wood burning system is a pleasure to use and the kind of system you want in your home.

There are ten design characteristics of a successful stove or fireplace system, they are:

1. The chimney runs inside the heated space of the home.
2. The chimney penetrates near the high point of the heated space.
3. The chimney is tall enough, beyond where it penetrates the roof, its top is clear of obstacles and it has a chimney cap.
4. The chimney flue is insulated and is the correct size for the appliance.
5. The conduit from the appliance runs straight up from the appliance and has no offsets.
6. The appliance and venting system are well sealed.
7. The stove or fireplace is EPA certified for safety and emissions.
8. If the system is installed in a tightly sealed house, the house has a balanced ventilation system.
9. If a large exhaust fan, such as a downdraft kitchen range exhaust, is present, it is electrically interlocked to a fan-forced make-up air system.
10. The appliance is operated by an informed user and regularly maintained.

These design characteristics function to keep the chimney gasses warmer than the heated space for as long as possible to keep the gases moving as quickly as possible, which facilitates beneficial draft and minimizes creosote buildup. These design characteristics also function to balance the air going out with the air coming in. This prevents the house from becoming depressurized, a symptom of which is smoke spillage and a cold draft from the chimney when there is no fire.

For more information, visit the website http://www.woodheat.org/, from which this production was gleaned.

Heating with Wood

2005-11-27T08:15:00.000-08:00

By Thembi Borras

The following suggestions are provided to support firewood harvested sustainably, burned cleanly and efficiently, and its energy used.

1. Harvest your firewood sustainably, which includes not cutting wildlife trees, avoiding damage to remaining trees, using existing roads, matching the weather to the surface of the road, selecting trees with the future condition of the stand in mind and where appropriate giving removal preference to hardwoods overtopping or competing with conifers. If you buy your firewood, ask your supplier where the wood came from. Make it known you only want wood harvested sustainably. Also, be aware of diseases which may use your vehicle as a vector, such as Sudden Oak Death.

2. Design your wood burning system such that it burns wood cleanly and efficiently (more on this next week). The efficiency of the wood burning system you select can vary greatly, open fireplaces deliver between zero and 20% net efficiency, whereas the contemporary "hi-tech" air tight wood stove may deliver better than 75% net efficiency.

3. Install your indoor wood burning system per the manufacturer specifications and maintain it so that it remains working efficiently and safe. Maintenance includes cleaning the accumulation of creosote in the chimney, which is a flammable by-product of wood combustion. Most stove-related fires are attributable to installation, operation and maintenance, rather than product defects.

4. Your wood burning system can only operate with high efficiency and low emissions if your firewood is properly seasoned. Properly seasoned firewood has a moisture content of less than 20%. One way to properly season your firewood is to cut, split and stack the wood in the early spring and let it stand in the sun and wind all summer. Symptoms of poor performance related to wet firewood include, difficulty getting a fire going and keeping it burning, smoky fires with little flame, dirty glass, rapid creosote buildup in the chimney, low heat output, the smell of smoke in the house, short burn times, excessive fuel consumption and blue-gray smoke from the chimney.

5. Insulate your home to contain the heat you produce. Note open fireplaces may perform very badly in tight homes because the house is easily depressurized.

For more information, visit the website http://www.co.mendocino.ca.us/aqmd/, from which this production was gleaned. The article "Heating with Wood" by G. Nelson Wolfe was also used as a source.

Safe Debris Burning

2005-10-30T12:09:00.000-08:00

By Thembi Borras

According to the Mendocino County Air Quality Management District, it is now winter burning season. Burning is allowed between the hours of 9am and 3pm only on permissive burn days. The burn forecast recording for Mendocino County is available 24-hours a day at 707-463-4391. It is not legal to burn anything except vegetative matter. A good rule of thumb is if it didn’t grow on your property, you may not burn it.

Burn permits are required for single piles in excess of 4' by 4'. They cost $10 and are available through the Mendocino County Air Quality Management District; the District can be reached at 707-463-4354.

In Mendocino County between 1994 and 2003, 18% of assigned fires were caused by escaped debris fires. The following are measures intended to minimize fire danger health issues and nuisance smoke:

1. Establish a 10-foot clearance from any combustible material.
2. Have shovel and water on hand until the fire is out.
3. Have a responsible adult present.
4. Consider a no-burn option. Composting and chipping may be feasible alternatives. Limbs and other debris may also be piled for wildlife habitat if located where they do not pose a fire hazard.
5. Burn one pile at a time.
6. Check the weather. It may be too windy to burn if trees are swaying, flags are extended, or waves appear on open water. It is not a good idea to burn on a day with a strong inversion because inversions trap pollutants at or near ground level and do not allow them to disperse. An inversion is when a layer of warm air traps a layer of cold air beneath it.

For more information, visit the website http://www.co.mendocino.ca.us/aqmd/. In Humboldt County, you can contact the North Coast Unified for burn information at 707-443-3093.

A portion of this production was gleaned from http://www.dnr.wa.gov/htdocs/rp/stewardship/bfs/WESTERN/safedebrisburning.html

Considering Wildlife Trees During Tree Marking

2005-10-23T07:59:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

Wildlife occupies every layer of a tree. In a light intensity single tree selection, during tree marking, you have the opportunity to evaluate each tree individually for wildlife value. Trees that provide preferred habitat to wildlife include goose pens, trees with broken tops and decadent trees.

Goose pen is the name given to a basal tree cavity, which during the homestead era could provide shelter for a goose or a gaggle of geese, depending on the size of the cavity. Goose pen is now used to describe any tree with a basal cavity, most often created by fire. Species that use goose pens include bats for roosting and birds for nesting.

Trees with broken tops facilitate fungal entry causing rot in the stem, which allows primary cavity nesters to begin excavation. Secondary cavity nesters follow. Flat tops provide nesting platforms and are preferred by several owl species if they are concave; meaning the top breaks off below the remaining canopy. Ospreys, a fish eating raptor, will nest in exposed flat tops. Portions of broken tops that stick above the rest of the canopy may be used by birds for roosting and perching.

Decadent trees, trees in a condition of decline, may possess oversized limbs and exfoliating bark, dense clusters of branches caused by a mistletoe infection and rotten cavities caused by some physical damage such as lightening or wind. Large limbs are platforms that support wildlife, the larger the limb the wider the range of species able to use the platform. Exfoliating bark is used by birds and bats to nest and roost. Dense clusters of branches may be used as cover or rest sites for animals including martens, fishers and squirrels. Northern spotted owls have used them as locations to nest. Decaying wood provides the medium in which woodpeckers forage and cavity nesters build nests.

Goose pens and decadent trees are not easily recreated given fire has been suppressed and stand age has been lowered. There is often an inverse relationship between the economic value and the wildlife value of a tree, which facilitates the decision to retain trees with high wildlife value and low economic value.

Marking to Improve Stand Structure

2005-10-16T07:52:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

Sustainable forestry is largely determined by how a forest management strategy is interpreted on the ground. Single tree selection does not imply sustainable forestry as it can easily be corrupted by high grading; taking the biggest and best trees. Tree marking, deciding which trees will be cut and which trees will be retained is the most important way a forester translates single tree selection on the ground. Although there are a hundred things to consider before marking a tree, the core criteria to improve stand structure, in descending order of priority, are:

1. Remove damaged, dying, or diseased trees. Generally, trees which may die prior to the next harvest. However, some dying trees may be retained to become snags, which are important to wildlife. This is a “sanitation” strategy.
2. Remove suppressed and intermediate crown class trees. These are trees that neither are presently contributing growth to the stand, nor are they expected to do so prior to the next harvest. This is a "thinning from below” strategy.
3. Remove selected larger trees that improve spacing for the higher quality trees, which will be retained. This is a “spacing improvement” strategy.

Target diameters also guide tree marking. For example, at age 50 the largest redwoods in the Jones Family Forest have not yet reached the target diameter of 36" specified in the long term management plan. Therefore, selection leans toward retaining the largest trees.

At age 80, the largest redwoods in the Jones Family Forest have reached the target diameter and selection leans toward removing them to benefit smaller diameter trees. However, not all trees that have reached the target diameter are cut. They are simply preferred if the situation warrants. In a situation where 18" to 24" redwood trees on the north side of the clump would benefit if the 36" tree on the south side were removed, then cutting the target diameter redwood may be warranted. If the removal of the target diameter tree will not benefit surrounding conifer trees because it is out on its own then retaining it may be warranted.

In conclusion, each harvest is used as an opportunity to upgrade overall stand quality by choosing which trees are retained and how they are spaced.

A portion of this production was gleaned from an unpublished paper by Craig Blencowe entitled, Craig Blencowe: Building up the Forest.

Increasing Timber Inventory to a Sustained Yield Goal

2005-10-09T07:16:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

Developing a sustained yield goal is in part based on site quality, which conveys the relative productivity of a land area. According to the Soil Survey Report for the western part of Mendocino County, the potential annual production from a fully stocked stand can be as low as 245 board feet (bf) per acre per year to as high as 2,050 bf/acre/year. Although different for each soil complex, often the potential annual production from a fully stocked stand of redwood and Douglas-fir is closer to 750 bf/acre/year. The sustained yield goal can be determined given the potential annual production and a selected long-term annual growth rate that can be maintained while protecting forest related values.

For example, if the potential annual production on the Jones Family Forest is 800 bf/acre/year and the Jones Family selects a long-term annual growth rate of 4%, the sustained yield goal is 20,000 bf/acre. This is determined by the following formula: 800 bf/acre/year = (.04/year)*X; X=20,000 bf/acre. The Jones Family Forest is 200 acres. Therefore, the sustained yield goal is 4,000,000 bf on the entire Jones Forest.

Critical to this exercise is to compare the sustained yield goal to the current standing volume and the current annual growth rate to the long term annual growth rate.

Continuing with this example, based on information from a timber cruise, the Jones Family Forest supports a current standing volume of 2,000,000 bf or 10,000 bf/acre. The Jones Family now knows the starting point, which is 2,000,000 bf, and the goal, which is 4,000,000 bf. At this point, a Potential Harvest Schedule can be developed, which will reflect how quickly this goal is reached based on the volume harvested at each entry, the responding growth rate and the frequency of entries.

By cutting less than growth over several cycles, the inventory of the stand will build and eventually the sustained yield goal will be attained, at which point, the periodic growth can be harvested without ever depleting the inventory.

The inventory can be viewed as “principle” and the growth as the “interest” earned on that principle. A truly sustainable forest allows the perpetual harvest of the interest without ever having to touch the principal.

The Soil Survey Report for the western part of Mendocino County is available at http://www.ca.nrcs.usda.gov/mlra02/wmendo.html. A portion of this production was gleaned from an unpublished paper by Craig Blencowe entitled, Craig Blencowe: Building up the Forest.

A Type of Forest Management

2005-10-02T07:06:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

I did not leave college knowing how to practice sustainable forestry on the ground. In fact, if I had depended solely on what I had learned in college I would not have thought the type of forest management I have learned and been privileged to implement for the last seven years was viable because, in part, economic return is not maximized. The type of forest management that I now use is quite simple. First, establish a long-range sustained yield goal based on the productive capacity of the site and a reasonable growth rate. After the long range sustained yield goal is established, build inventory by cutting less than growth until the goal is met. Once the goal is met, growth can be harvested. The other aspect of this approach is to improve stand structure by not cutting the biggest and best trees.

Although short-term profit is not maximized this approach provides a periodic income to the landowner and is an effective way to support forest related values. Pre harvest habitat is the same as post harvest habitat, so wildlife habitat does not decline. Aesthetics are bolstered by maintaining a continuous forest canopy and encouraging fewer large stems as opposed to many small stems. Also, this type of forest management can minimize adverse watershed effects through the low level of canopy removal. The lower the level of canopy removal the lower the increase in peak flow. Conversely, an increase in peak flows can mean an increase in sediment production.

Other arguments against this type of forest management, which can be described as a light intensity single tree selection, are natural regeneration suffers due to lack of adequate light and reentry every 10 to 15 years does not allow the land to rest. While these arguments have some validity, they are not insurmountable. Redwood sprouting is usually adequate post harvest but it is sometimes necessary to remove trees in small groups to encourage Douglas-fir seedlings. In addition, seedlings can be interplanted in openings created by the harvest to supplement natural regeneration. Finally, periodic entry every 10 to 15 years is an opportunity to improve a permanent truck road and skid trail network and correct accessible legacy problems.

A portion of this production was gleaned from an unpublished paper by Craig Blencowe entitled, Craig Blencowe: Building up the Forest.

Balancing Economics and Ecology

2005-09-25T06:53:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

Ask not what your forest can do for you instead ask what you can do for your forest. The reversal of this relationship is not mutually exclusive. Breaking forestland into ever smaller parcels, called forest fragmentation and converting forestland are widely considered "not good" for the forest. It is likely that the forest will benefit if forestland owners are able to withstand the lure of higher incomes from other uses. Forestland owners receiving income from forest management are better able to carry on, thus not fragmenting or converting forestland further.

If receiving income from forest management is key to keeping forestland intact so is forest management in which less than maximum profit is accepted to better support forest related values, including watershed, wildlife, aesthetics and recreation. Balancing economic return and ecosystem return is the challenge for foresters today. Mendocino County and Humboldt County forestland offer some examples of this balance.

Political Scientist William Obhuls stated, "Nature abhors a maximum." Following is Dr. Garrett Hardin's interpretation of this quote: What Obhuls meant by this: that if a you settle on a single measure of excellence, such as profit in a profit and loss system, and decide you're going to maximize the profit, no matter what, you can be quite sure that before you get through, you will have minimized some other value that you hadn't thought of, but which you really have high regard for. So the idea is, don't be so one-minded as to try to maximize any one thing. But instead, say here's a whole mixture of things I would like to have. Profit is one of them. Also, you would like to have beautiful scenery; you would like to have some wild animals, some wilderness areas, and so on; and you cannot maximize all at once.

Road Drainage

2005-09-04T06:43:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

Chances are you have seen the result of poor road drainage manifested in water that has been allowed to concentrate and reach a velocity that moves soil causing accelerated erosion. Addressing road drainage is central to meeting two of the road management goals, reducing chronic delivery of sediment and reducing maintenance.

There are three ways to drain a road. Insloping is where the roadbed is tipped toward the cutbank, water flows to the inside ditch where it mixes with flow intercepted from the hillslope. The water is then carried to a ditch relief culvert and underneath the road to the outside edge of the road. Outsloping is where the roadbed is tipped out; water is not concentrated and flows to the outside edge of the road. Rolling dips supplement outsloping by insuring water gets across the road. The third way to drain a road is crowning, 1/2 the roadbed is tipped out and 1/2 the roadbed is tipped in.

Any of these methods, installed well, will minimize chronic erosion. The key is to drain roads well and frequently onto stable surfaces.

After road improvement, chronic erosion will continue. However, improvements are intended to minimize and redirect the sediment generated to stable locations and filter strips, such that the sediment has a chance to drop out before reaching the waterway, thus disconnecting roads from streams.

For more information on road drainage reference the Handbook for Forest and Ranch Roads by Pacific Watershed Associates or the "Roads" video, adapted from the Handbook. Both are available through the Mendocino County Resource Conservation District (707-468-9223) and the Navarro River Resource Center (707-895-3230).

Stream Crossings

2005-08-28T06:33:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

Stream crossings exist where roads intersect watercourses, they include bridges, culverts, fords and rock armored fill crossings. One of the fundamentals of road management is that stream crossings be designed for large storm events. The currently accepted standard is for stream crossings to be designed for 100-year flood flows.

Stream crossings deserve considerable attention in road management because if a crossing fails the fill associated with the crossing will almost certainly enter the watercourse. Bridges with inadequately sized abutments, fords with steep dirt approaches and rock armored fill crossings with inadequately sized rock contribute sediment. However, in my experience, the highest risk of direct sediment delivery to a watercourse is from undersized, poorly designed and installed culverted stream crossings.

Culverted stream crossings have appropriately been described as a dam with a hole in it and are prone to plugging. The most common reason why culverts fail is the inlet becomes plugged with woody debris. The following design considerations will lower the risk of failure: 1) size the culvert to pass the 100-year flood flow and the wood and debris associated with that event, 2) align the culvert with the natural stream channel, 3) install the culvert at the grade of the original stream channel, 4) place the culvert in the bottom of the fill and compact the fill well, 5) install a trash rack and 6) install a diversion proof dip. The purpose of a diversion proof dip is, if the culvert should plug, the watercourse is directed back into the channel so that diversion is avoided. Finally, realize there are alternatives to culverted stream crossings that require less maintenance. For example, a rock armored fill crossing or a ford is a good alternative to a culverted stream crossing, where drivability allows.

There are a number of resources to aid you in stream crossing design and implementation. They include the Handbook for Forest and Ranch Roads by Pacific Watershed Associates and the February 2004 publication entitled Designing Watercourse Crossings for Passage of 100-year Flood Flows, Wood, and Sediment available through the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection website. Click on Resource Management then click on Forest Practice or go directly to (http://www.fire.ca.gov/php/rsrc-mgt_forestpractice_pubsmemos.php ).

Roads

2005-08-21T16:07:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

Roads facilitate travel to our homes and places of work. In fact, nearly every activity in a rural community requires getting in a car and traveling on a road somewhere. In a logging operation roads influence aesthetics, logging costs and environmental mitigation. I often find myself asking the question, can an existing problem road, located near a watercourse, be relocated to a ridge and diminish the environmental consequences at the same time facilitate logging method and be financially feasible? During my forestry fieldwork, second only to deciding what trees will be left and cut, is managing roads for improvement and aesthetics. I have yet to meet a road that did not need improvement. Why should you be concerned about roads? Because poorly constructed roads accelerate erosion, which increases stream sedimentation, and can be maintenance nightmares.

According to Danny Hagans of Pacific Watershed Associates the three goals of road improvement are to reduce the chance of sediment delivery as a result of episodic events, reduce chronic delivery of sediment and reduce maintenance. There are many ways to accomplish these goals. Addressing the following points in your road management decisions will insure the ultimate goal, of making roads as invisible on the landscape as possible, is met. Drain roads well and frequently onto stable surfaces, diversion proof crossings, design crossings to pass fish and design crossings for the large episodic event.

There are resources to aid you in road management decision making. A widely used publication is the Handbook for Forest and Ranch Roads by Pacific Watershed Associates. The concepts in the Handbook have been adapted into a "Roads" video. Both are available through the Mendocino County Resource Conservation District (707-468-9223) and the Navarro River Resource Center (707-895-3230). Also check out the website of the Navarro Watershed Working Group (http://www.nwwg.org/) and click on workshops. There you will find a comprehensive write-up from a 2003 Roads workshop.

Sudden Oak Death

2005-08-07T16:04:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

Sudden Oak Death (SOD) is a forest disease caused by a water mold fungus (Phytophthora ramorum). This fungus will cause SOD in hosts including tanoak, coast live oak and California black oak and a foliar/twig disease in other hosts including California bay laurel.

The most useful diagnostic symptom for Phytophthora ramorum in mature oaks and tanoak is cankers on the trunk from which dark black to red or amber sap exudes. Diagnosis of the disease is not always easy, for example, a tanoak tree may be infected but the symptoms do not show. The sudden browning of the tree crown, for which the "sudden" part of "sudden oak death" was derived, may occur several years after the onset of infection and not all trees end in a sudden browning, some have gradual leaf loss. Black charcoal bubbles, a fungus know as Hypoxylon decays sapwood and may move into a tree weakened by Phytophthora ramorum, but presence of Hypoxylon does not mean the tree has Phytophthora ramorum.

A common diagnostic symptom of Phytophthora ramorum in California bay laurel is dead areas on the leaves, where water collects. No bay laurel trees have reportedly died from this fungus. However, bay laurels are thought to be very important in spreading the disease as the fungus readily produces spores on moist bay leaves. The vectors of Phytophthora ramorum are wind and water.

By answering the following questions you can get an idea if a tree you suspect, is infected with Phytophthora ramorum: Is the tree a host species? Is it located in an infected area? Does it have the symptoms? The only way to be certain that a plant has Phytophthora ramorum is to have a tissue sample laboratory-tested. If you determine a tree is infected, what should you do? It depends, see " A Homeowner's Guide to Sudden Oak Death" at the website http://www.suddenoakdeath.org/. The fungus can be killed by burning infected wood or composting it very well. Moving infected wood can spread the fungus especially if conditions are wet. Remember, when leaving an infected area; disinfect your shoes or other wet muddy transport mechanisms.

The website http://www.suddenoakdeath.org/ is an excellent resource as are the County Agricultural Departments.

Redwood Top Die-back

2005-07-31T15:53:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

Throughout the redwood region redwood tops occasionally dieback. A green live top will turn brown, lose its needles and all that remains is a brown stem and lateral branches. The tree may or may not grow another top from this persistent weak spot. The dead top will sometimes break out and the tree becomes a flat top. Trees with dead tops are prevented from growing taller unless a new top grows, regardless the tree will continue to grow in diameter.

There are different causes of redwood top dieback, along the coast the harsh salt laden winds can cause tops, especially those that stick up more prominently, to lose their needles and dieback. Between Eureka and Crescent City, in the vicinity of the Drury Bypass, bear damage is apparent. Bears do not appear to get to the top, but will shred the bark, where the tree bole is larger. If the damage is extensive, the entire tree including the top will die. In Humboldt Redwoods Sate Park just south of Scotia, evident on the Eel River side of Highway 101 are old-growth redwood where nearly every tall tree has a dead top. In this case, the highway changed the water drainage pattern and increased the exposure of the treetops to increased air movement. Increased water stress combined with desiccation may have caused the tops to die.

The most common cause of redwood top dieback is animal damage by tree squirrels, wood rats and the occasional porcupine, which can chew the bark to the cambium. If enough area is affected the flow of nutrients is disrupted and the portion above the damaged area will die. The species of squirrels most likely causing the damage are Douglas' Squirrel (Tamiasciurus douglasii), also called "Red Tree Squirrel" or "Chickaree" and to a lesser extent the Western Gray Squirrel (Sciurus griseus), also called the "California Gray Squirrel". Dusky-footed Woodrats (Neotoma fuscipes) also cause damage, in younger redwood trees, trees less than 20 feet in height. In a clump of a dozen trees, the woodrat may advance a handful of tops to die. A handful more may be lightly chewed and the balance may escape being munched altogether. You may be able to catch the tree squirrels in action as they are active during the day, but it will be harder to catch woodrats in action as they are nocturnal.

Landowner Incentives to Increase Forest Net Carbon Stores

2005-07-24T15:28:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

This post explores the answer to the following question: What mechanisms encourage landowners to minimize forest loss, increase forested areas and temper forest harvest?

A market for ecosystem services, such as clean air, clean water and carbon storage is inevitable. The Chicago Climate Exchange (CCX) is one such infrastructure. CCX members agree to reduce their overall carbon dioxide emissions by 1 percent per year. Members who reduce their emissions by more than 1% per year can sell the difference as "carbon credits" to other members who pay a price to pollute.

Businesses based in the US have little incentive to join the voluntary cap and trade market, as they are not required to reduce emissions. Consequently, domestic prices remain as low as $4/ton of carbon. In Europe however companies required to reduce emissions per the, now in effect, Kyoto protocol are trading and carbon dioxide emissions credits have increased to $32/ton of carbon. European markets do not presently include the forest sector. However, it is feasible that, in the future, landowners could join the market by selling the carbon stored in their forest as an ecosystem service to companies that don't meet the carbon emissions reduction targets.

Apart from the slow pace the federal government is taking, within a couple of years, the State of California may adopt a market-based cap and trade strategy to implement Governor Schwarzenegger's greenhouse gas reduction goals for the State, within which the forest sector may be included.

The value per ton of carbon would need to reach $20 for landowners to be economically enticed to participate in the carbon market. If the value per ton of carbon reached $100, storing carbon would directly compete with returns from development and short rotation timber harvest.

Other economic mechanisms include consumer preference for forest products from well-managed forests (e.g. Forest Stewardship Council certified), land use laws (e.g. urban growth boundaries), education, performance-based regulation, global fair trade laws and a vibrant timber industry infrastructure (loggers, truckers, mills etc.).

More difficult to convert into economic terms are aesthetics and the deep connection to the land that many landowners exhibit which also inspires a well-managed forest that supports carbon storage and associated values.

A portion of this production was gleaned from Forest Carbon in the United States: Opportunities and Options for Private Lands a publication offered by The Pacific Forest Trust, a 08-01-05 article entitled Free Market, Cleaner Air written by Marianne Lavelle, Michelle Passero of the Pacific Forest Trust and a 08-01-05 article entitled Morgan Stanley, Citadel Chase Profit in Pollution-Rights Trade by Adam Levy.

The Relationship between Carbon Storage and Forest Disturbance

2005-07-17T15:22:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

Forests have tremendous potential to meter carbon dioxide emissions. Carbon is stored in forests until carbon is transferred back into the atmosphere through some sort of disturbance, such as forest loss, forest harvest or natural disturbance.

The scale of forest loss is more significant globally and nationally than it is regionally. Nonetheless forest loss is occurring regionally and has serious implications, 2% of existing forest and rangeland in the Klamath/ North Coast bioregion, which includes Mendocino County, will become, at a minimum, a rural residential neighborhood by the year 2040. If Mendocino County were considered individually, this figure would likely be higher given our proximity to the Bay Area. Statewide this figure is 10%. Part of the reason for this shift in land use is it can be more profitable to treat forestland as real estate than it can be to manage it. Shifting land use does not necessarily equate to forest loss but may lead to forest loss as it continues to do in Lake Arrowhead. In Lake Arrowhead, a Southern California forested neighborhood, bark beetle afflicted trees continue to be removed to reduce fire hazard and improve safety.

The amount of stored carbon is reduced at the time of harvest. When a tree is harvested, approximately 1/3 of the carbon is stored in the final product, for example, dimensional lumber and plywood. The remaining 2/3 is lost to the atmosphere, 1/3 of which is lost within 5 years, and the other 1/3 over time through decay. Stands at age 35 have 70 tons per acre of tree carbon. Stands at age 70 have more than double that, 194 tons per acre.

The amount of stored carbon is also reduced when harvest exceeds growth. Since the 1980's, growth in California has exceeded harvest. However, taken from 1996 data, nationally harvest exceeded growth.

Preventing forest loss, increasing forested area and forest management that increases forest age, increases growth relative to harvest, fosters a disease and fire resistant forest, has integrity, supports biodiversity and is economically sound can increase net carbon stores.

These strategies may be supported by performance based regulation, market incentives, land use laws, education, carbon credits, global fair trade laws and a functioning timber infrastructure.

A portion of this production was gleaned from The Changing California: Forest and Range 2003 Assessment for California from the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection and Forest Carbon in the United States: Opportunities and Options for Private Lands a publication offered by The Pacific Forest Trust.

The Biology of Carbon Sequestration

2005-07-10T15:11:00.000-07:00

By Thembi Borras

In response to the G8 meeting in Scotland of which global warming was one focus, I will explore the relationship between global warming and forests in the next several posts.

Greenhouse gases contribute to global warming, of these greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide is emitted in the greatest quantity. The bulk of the carbon dioxide is let into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned.

Carbon dioxide passes into the tree through the stomata, which are openings in the "skin" of the leaves and needles. Light energy, stored in chlorophyll, triggers photosynthesis, the reaction that changes inorganic carbon (carbon dioxide) into organic carbon (carbohydrate). Organic carbon is moved downward (translocated) in vascular tissue called phloem from a source, such as a mature leaf, to a sink such as roots, the tree bole, and developing fruits.

Organic carbon is used by the tree to increase biomass and provides the energy to build and maintain that biomass. To obtain this energy, trees respire consuming approximately 1/2 of the organic carbon assimilated during photosynthesis releasing carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere.

The carbon a tree gains is a function of the balance between carbon uptake by photosynthesis and carbon lost by respiration. Carbon sequestration is the term used for this net gain of organic carbon.

Although younger rapidly growing forests are more productive in terms of carbon dioxide uptake from the atmosphere and respiration is more efficient, the younger forest lacks the accumulated organic carbon from many decades of growth. When older forests are replaced by younger forests, they store less carbon. More influential is when forests are converted to non timber uses, such as roads, housing and agriculture and the capacity to store carbon is further decreased.

A portion of this post was gleaned from Introduction to Plant Physiology by William G. Hopkins and Forest Carbon in the United States: Opportunities and Options for Private Lands a publication offered by The Pacific Forest Trust.